-

 

                                                             Eugenics 101

                                                     Dysgenics 101

                              Genetics, Race, Science, Eugenics & Dysgenics

                                                     Author: Michael James Ross                                                    

                                                      Published: October 15, 2020

 

_____________________________________

 

 

Section 1: Introduction

Section 2: IQ, Skull Shape & Genetics

Section 3: Reaction Time

Section 4: Alcohol & LSD

Section 5: Motion Sickness

Section 6: Face & Genetics

Section 7: Ears & Genetics

Section 8: Lips & Genetics

Section 9: Nose & Genetics

Section 10: Glands & Genetics

Section 11: Skin & Genetics

Section 12: Hair & Genetics

Section 13: Parasites

Section 14: Blood & Genetics

Section 15: Body Mass Index (BMI) & Genetics

Section 16: Stomach & Genetics

Section 17: Bones & Genetics

Section 18: Knees, Legs & Genetics

Section 19: Legs & Genetics

Section 20: Feet & Genetics

Section 21: Hands & Genetics

Section 22: Genetics, Race & Science

Section 23: The White Race

Section 24: The Future Race of Humans

Section 25: Jews

Section 26: The Asian Race

_____________________________________

_____________________________________

_____________________________________

_____________________________________

 

4/10/2020 - The Cephalic Investigation - Race Eugenics & Dysgenics (Skull Evolution & The History of the Lineage of Man)

https://skullevolution.blogspot.com

 

_____________________________________



 3/5/2019 - Race Dysgenics: Evolution, Dysgenic De-evolution, Eugenics & Genetic Modification - The History of the Lineage of Man  - https://racedysgenics.blogspot.com


_____________________________________


04/19/2018 The Dysgenics Investigation - Race, Science & the Human Genome Project - The Eugenics Investigation (Akoniti) - DysgenicsInvestigation.blogspot.com


_____________________________________

 

3/27/2020 - Race Dysgenics Brazil | Eugenics in Brazil

 
https://eugenicsbrazil.blogspot.com

 

_____________________________________



Race Virus 101 - The Eugenics Investigation ( The Dysgenics Investigation)

https://racevirus101.blogspot.com/


_____________________________________



8/15/2017 - Genetically Modified Vaccines Investigated - The Eugenics Investigation (MonsantoInvestigation.com) - GMOvaccinesinvestigated.blogspot.com


_____________________________________



July 7th, 2017 - Genetically Modified Humans & Viruses - The Eugenics Investigation - GMOhumansandviruses.blogspot.com


_____________________________________

_____________________________________

_____________________________________

__________________________________

__________________________________

__________________________________


Section 1: Introduction

__________________________________

__________________________________

__________________________________

_____________________________________

_____________________________________

 

__________________________________

 

Eugenics

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eugenics

 

Eugenics (/juːˈdʒɛnɪks/ yoo-JEH-niks; from Greek εὐ- "good" and γενής "come into being, growing") is a set of beliefs and practices that aim to improve the genetic quality of a human population, historically by excluding people and groups judged to be inferior or promoting those judged to be superior.

The concept predates the term; Plato suggested applying the principles of selective breeding to humans around 400 BC. Early advocates of eugenics in the 19th century regarded it as a way of improving groups of people. In contemporary usage, the term eugenics is closely associated with scientific racism and white supremacy. Modern bioethicists who advocate new eugenics characterise it as a way of enhancing individual traits, regardless of group membership.

While eugenic principles have been practiced as early as ancient Greece, the contemporary history of eugenics began in the early 20th century, when a popular eugenics movement emerged in the United Kingdom, and then spread to many countries, including the United States, Canada, and most European countries. In this period, people from across the political spectrum espoused eugenic ideas. Consequently, many countries adopted eugenic policies, intended to improve the quality of their populations' genetic stock. Such programs included both positive measures, such as encouraging individuals deemed particularly "fit" to reproduce, and negative measures, such as marriage prohibitions and forced sterilization of people deemed unfit for reproduction. Those deemed "unfit to reproduce" often included people with mental or physical disabilities, people who scored in the low ranges on different IQ tests, criminals and "deviants," and members of disfavored minority groups.

 

__________________________________

 

 Evolution is the Fuel Behind Racism

June 9, 2020


https://crev.info/2020/06/evolution-is-the-fuel-behind-racism/



A Brief History of Darwin-Inspired Racial Prejudice

Figure 1. Illustrations in Chapman Using Race Hierarchies to Prove Human Evolution. Number 13, the Papuan is the lowest human race, the Hottentot is number 14; both are close to the Gorilla (number 12). Note that the Gorilla and the Hottentot are almost identical. A Negro is number 16 and a European, the highest race, is number 24. The Gorilla profile was greatly distorted to look human and the Papuan and Hottentot greatly distorted to look like apes. This distortion is called “artistic license.” Below is the caption to the illustrations.
   

	NATIVE COUNTRY.
1. Baboon	Guinea
2. Pig-faced Baboon	Cape Land
3. Macaque	Sumatra
4. Semnopitecus	Java
5. Nasalis	Borneo
6. Gibbon	India
7. Orang, young (female)	Borneo
8. Orang old	Guinea
9. Chimpanzee, young (female)	Guinea
10. Chimpanzee, old	Guinea
11. Gorilla, young (female)	Guinea
12. Gorilla, old	Guinea
13. Papuan (female)	Van Diemen’s Land
14. Hottentot	Cape Land
15. Caffre	Zulu Coast
16. Negro	Soudan
17. Australian	Victoria Land
18. Malay (female)	Polynesia
19. Mongolian (male)	Thibet
20. Arctic (female)	Kamtchatka
21. American (male)	Mississippi
22. Drave	India
23. Nubain	Kordofan
24. European	Greece

__________________________________

 Ape Fracture Patterns Show Higher Incidence in More Arboreal Species

2012

http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/799/ape-fracture-patterns-show-higher-incidence-in-more-arboreal-species

 

For the great apes in the wild, long bone fractures can be devastating, and their occurrence is an important factor in evolution. Since one likely cause of long bone fractures is falls, the hypothesis was that more arboreal primates would show greater fracture incidence. Since the upper limb is longer than the lower limb in apes, the upper limb was expected to sustain a greater proportion of the fractures. Differences in the proportions of upper limb bone fractures could elucidate how the apes vary in the causes for long bone fractures. In this study, the proportion of individuals with long bone fractures and the proportion of upper limb fractures were compared in Pan troglodytes and Hylobates in samples from the Hamann-Todd Osteological Collection at the Cleveland Museum of Natural History. These data were compared to previous literature on different collections of gibbons, chimpanzees, gorillas, and humans. The differences between these apes' behavior and physiology, based on their divergent evolutionary histories, should elucidate the underlying causes for differences in fracture incidence and distribution.

 

__________________________________

 

Our Skulls Might Have Evolved To Withstand Blows To The Face

October 19, 2014

https://www.npr.org/2014/10/19/357020857/our-skulls-might-have-evolved-to-withstand-blows-to-the-face

 

__________________________________

Section C: Assessing Sentinel Facial Features
 

Fetal exposure to alcohol during the first trimester affects development of facial features. The areas most affected are the orbital region (eyes) and mid-face.The effect of prenatal alcohol exposure on fetal brain growth is also thought to affect the size and shape of the face. A range of facial anomalies can occur as result of prenatal alcohol exposure. There are three features which commonly occur across age, gender and ethnic groups:

 

 ▪Small palpebral fissures: short horizontal length of the eye opening, defined as the distance from the endocanthionto the exocanthion(points A and B on photo below) 

 

▪Smooth philtrum: diminished or absent ridges between the upper lip and nose 

 

▪Thin upper lip: with small volume 

 

These features are shown in the photo below.

           
Although these facial features may also occur independently as normal variations in the general population (unrelated to prenatal alcohol exposure), when seen in combination, these facial featuresare pathognomonicof and highly specific to prenatal alcohol exposure.They are termed the ‘sentinel’ facial features of FASD.

 

 

 

 

 
Guides specific to Australian populations have not yet been developed, although research has commenced.  In the absence of Australian lip-philtrum guides, the clinician should use charts which best fit the lip thickness of the individual they are assessing, while also considering the ethnic background/s of the individual. Nonetheless, Lip-Philtrum Guides specific to every racial group may not to be required due to the lack of a homogenous phenotype for many races, the frequency of multiracial ancestry, and the small magnitude of differences involved. In addition, small palpebral fissure length is the most consistent finding in 2D and 3D studies of facial features of FASD in different ethnic populations and ages, suggesting it is particularly sensitive to prenatal alcohol exposure. Smooth philtrum and thin upper lip are also consistent findings across populations. Recent studies indicate there are racial differences in other PAE related facial features (4, 5).

https://www.fasdhub.org.au/siteassets/pdfs/section-c-assessing-sentinel-facial-features--appendices-c-and-d.pdf


__________________________________



Did Lower Testosterone Make The Modern Man?

 Aug 13, 2014

https://www.wunc.org/post/did-lower-testosterone-make-modern-man



About 50,000 years ago, people started developing tools. They started making art, in caves. And they started cooperating. Simultaneously, that's when our faces went from looking like the skull on the left, to the one on the right.

A group of researchers from Duke and the University of Utah are theorizing that the correlation is not coincidence; that, in fact, the changing shape of skulls signals a change in something else that would have made cooperation more likely: A drop in male testosterone levels.

"Looking mostly at the brow ridges, the area above your eyes... and the shape of your upper face" said Bob Cieri, lead author on the research, you can see when testosterone levels taper off.

How? Cieri says you can look at some of humans' closest biological relatives, bonobos and chimps, to see the effects of lower testosterone levels.

"Bonobo males kind of look like chimp females," said Robert Cieri, a graduate student at the University of Utah. "The male skulls don't look as masculinized."

Cieri says this may have started to happen as population density increased. When groups of humans started bumping up against other groups, they may have found it advantageous to cooperate with each other, rather than pummel each other into the ground (as high levels of testosterone might make more likely).

Cieri is careful to point out that the levels of testosterone we're talking about are pretty high.

"It's not really selection of men versus women," said Cieri. "It's selection against hugely dominant, aggressive males that don't maybe even exist in today's population.

The facial differences between an ancient modern human with heavy brows and a large upper face and the more recent modern human who has rounder features and a much less prominent brow.

__________________________________

 

Testosterone, Race, and Crime

April 15, 2016

https://thealternativehypothesis.org/index.php/2016/04/15/testosterone-race-and-crime/



__________________________________



Effects of gendered behavior on testosterone in women and men

2015

https://www.pnas.org/content/112/45/13805


__________________________________


Racial/ethnic variations in male testosterone levels: A probable contributor to group differences in health

1992

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/0039128X92900325


__________________________________


Men's testosterone levels largely determined by where they grow up

June 25, 2018

https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2018/06/180625122437.htm


__________________________________


Racial differences in hypogonadal improvement and prostate-specific antigen levels in hypogonadal men treated with testosterone replacement therapy

2010

https://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1677-55382010000600008&lang=en


__________________________________


Racial differences in testosterone: Black men have highest, white men in the middle, Asian men have the least

May 12th, 2017

https://www.tremr.com/Duck-Rabbit/racial-differences-in-testosterone-black-men-have-highest


Men from different racial and ethnic groups differ in the degree to which they suffer from prostate cancer. Researchers have hypothesized that differences in endogenous androgen levels may be at least partially behind this. To test this hypothesis, researchers gathered data on androgen serum concentrations and sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG) in older men from 4 ethnic groups. African-Americans, Chinese, Japanese and Caucasian men were selected for the study

    "After adjustment for age and Quetelet's index, the levels of total and bioavailable testosterone were highest in Asian-Americans, intermediate in African-Americans, and lowest in whites. However, the DHT:testosterone ratio was highest in African-Americans, intermediate in whites, and lowest in Asian-Americans, corresponding to the respective incidence rates in these groups and providing indirect evidence for ethnic differences in 5alpha-reductase enzyme activity."

This study was conducted on older men. Another study conducted on young men found the same thing when comparing African-American and Caucasian men, with free testosterone being 21% higher in black males than white males and mean testosterone levels being 19% higher in black males:

    "Blacks in the United States have the highest prostate cancer rate in the world and nearly twice that of whites in the United States. The 2:1 black-to-white ratio in prostate cancer rates is already apparent at age 45 years, the age at which the earliest prostate cancer cases occur. This finding suggests that the factor(s) responsible for the difference in rates occurs, or first occurs, early in life. Testosterone has been hypothesized to play a role in the etiology of prostate cancer, because testosterone and its metabolite, dihydrotestosterone, are the principal trophic hormones that regulate growth and function of epithelial prostate tissue. This report gives the results of assays of circulating steroid hormone levels in white and black college students in Los Angeles, CA. Mean testosterone levels in blacks were 19% higher than in whites, and free testosterone levels were 21% higher. Both these differences were statistically significant. Adjustment by analysis of covariance for time of sampling, age, weight, alcohol use, cigarette smoking, and use of prescription drugs somewhat reduced the differences. After these adjustments were made, blacks had a 15% higher testosterone level and a 13% higher free testosterone level. A 15% difference in circulating testosterone levels could readily explain a twofold difference in prostate cancer risk."

Other interesting hormonal differences among the races have been found:

    In extending the follow-up to young men in Japan, Ross found to his surprise that their testosterone levels were similar to those of U.S. whites. But the study also suggested that the Japanese had lower activity of 5-alpha reductase than did U.S. whites and blacks. This enzyme metabolizes testosterone into dihydrotestosterone, or DHT, which is at least eight to 10 times more potent than testosterone (see sidebar). This finding, Ross said, is “very consistent with the role of androgens in prostate carcinogenesis and in explaining the racial/ethnic variations in risk.”

    The 5-alpha reductase type I1 gene is one of several that Ross's group is investigating for possible effects on testosterone secretion and metabolism and other androgen activity. He said they have found some forms of this gene that are unique to African-Americans and a few that are unique to Asian-Americans as well.



__________________________________

 

 What's wrong with the Asian fighters?

https://forums.sherdog.com/threads/whats-wrong-with-the-asian-fighters.3324611/page-2

 

__________________________________

Asians suck in MMA or UFC, Fight me if you dont agree

Asians are short, with short legs, hand & a short height disadvantage.

https://forum.lowyat.net/topic/4675847/all


__________________________________

Why can't Asian fighters succeed in the UFC?

https://www.quora.com/Why-cant-Asian-fighters-succeed-in-the-UFC


Many Asian fighters have succeeded to a degree in the UFC. Kazushi Sakuraba won an early UFC tournament. Caol (Kaoru) Uno fought for the lightweight title twice. Weili Zhang just won the women's strawweight title. However Asian fighters have had a difficult time succeeding at the highest levels of MMA over the past decade or so. There are a number of reasons for this.


__________________________________



Why are there so few Asian fighters in UFC?


https://www.reddit.com/r/MMA/comments/ij82e/why_are_there_so_few_asian_fighters_in_ufc/


You would think, with their many thousand year martial arts, they would have an advantage. What gives?

Can't Tell if Serious or some form of advanced Trollery... with that said, I think most asian fighters are lacking due to

    A lack of wrestling background (American Wrestling is the current MMA 'meta-game' under these current rules)

    No usage of a Cage (come on, you fight in a cage, at least try to train in one)

    Can competition, the Japanese circuit is kind of a can smashing contest with the exception of a few fighters


__________________________________

Are there any effective Kung Fu fighters in MMA?

https://martialarts.stackexchange.com/questions/4806/are-there-any-effective-kung-fu-fighters-in-mma



In my opinion, Kung Fu fighters seem to be stuck into their own environment/technique. I say this because I've never seen any Kung Fu guys fighting (for real/professionally) in a fight with MMA rules.

So, are there any Kung Fu fighters (of any style) who are really effective fighting MMA? And if there is no one, what would be the reason?



__________________________________



Harsh reality for Asian MMA fighters [NSTTV]

May 26, 2018

https://www.nst.com.my/sports/mma/2018/05/373517/harsh-reality-asian-mma-fighters-nsttv

 

__________________________________


Body image attitudes of Asian American and Caucasian American women and men.

2001

https://scholarworks.umass.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=4288&context=dissertations_1

__________________________________


Why has no one who is Indian participated in the UFC yet? In India, fighters play in the SFL, so why are they not playing in the UFC?

https://www.quora.com/Why-has-no-one-who-is-Indian-participated-in-the-UFC-yet-In-India-fighters-play-in-the-SFL-so-why-are-they-not-playing-in-the-UFC


__________________________________



Why are there no Indian fighters in UFC?

https://www.quora.com/Why-are-there-no-Indian-fighters-in-UFC

__________________________________


Why aren't Indian fighters doing well in the MMA

https://www.quora.com/Why-aren-t-Indian-fighters-doing-well-in-the-MMA


__________________________________



Why no Indian fighters?

https://www.reddit.com/r/MMA/comments/hy43ic/why_no_indian_fighters/


*I was thinking about how the UFC is such a worldwide showcase of talented fighters. We have had North and South American champs, African born champs, European champs, Australian, and Asian champs. One thing came to mind though. How is it possible that India which accounts for 17% of the world population has never produced any notably fighters. Small countries like Suriname which has less than a million people have a fighter in the UFC, but India with over a billion has none? Any thought on why? Not sure if OneFC has any?


*There are indian fighters. they just don't do very well outside of india.

__________________________________



India's Super Fight League: So Bad It Is Damaging the Image of MMA

April 5, 2012

https://bleacherreport.com/articles/1133195-indias-super-fight-league-is-so-bad-it-is-damaging-the-image-of-mma


__________________________________

Why has no one who is Indian participated in the UFC yet? In India, fighters play in the SFL, so why are they not playing in the UFC?

https://www.quora.com/Why-has-no-one-who-is-Indian-participated-in-the-UFC-yet-In-India-fighters-play-in-the-SFL-so-why-are-they-not-playing-in-the-UFC


__________________________________


Why potential Indian fighters won't make it to the UFC

2018

https://forums.sherdog.com/threads/why-potential-indian-fighters-wont-make-it-to-the-ufc.3864289/page-5

 

__________________________________

Could Indians/Pakistanis/Bangladeshis succeed in MMA?

https://forums.sherdog.com/threads/could-indians-pakistanis-bangladeshis-succeed-in-mma.2613989/


__________________________________

 

 UFC Referee Marc Goddard attacked by fighter

Aug 3, 2020

{When two Arab looking people try to fight in the ring}.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BN5fbFprDOY

 

__________________________________

Arabs run the MMA Management game

2019

https://forums.sherdog.com/threads/arabs-run-the-mma-management-game.4037945/

It turns out that the Kawa brothers, who manage Jorge Masvidal, Jon Jones, and plenty of other notable fighters, are Arabic.


__________________________________


The Truth About Indian Reservation UFC Fights...

Apr 8, 2020

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=m6DhXjBOnJQ


__________________________________

 

 Top 11 All-Time Best Israeli MMA Fighters

2019

https://besttoplistsbg.com/israeli-mma-fighters/


__________________________________

Jewish fighters?

How many Jewish MMA fighters are there? I assume Sarah Kaufman is Jewish because of her last name.

Mar 5, 2012

http://forum.mmajunkie.com/forum/threads/jewish-fighters.45623/

 

__________________________________

 

MMA Fighters From Israel

 

https://www.tapology.com/search/mma-fighters-by-nationality/country-il



__________________________________

The Greatest Jewish Fighters in The History of Boxing

2008

https://www.boxingscene.com/greatest-jewish-fighters-history-boxing--16546


__________________________________

 

Orthodox Jewish MMA fighter gunned down in Florida

2017

https://nypost.com/2017/07/05/orthodox-jewish-mma-fighter-gunned-down-in-florida/

 

__________________________________

 

List of Jews in sports

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Jews_in_sports

 

__________________________________

Possible motive, additional suspects in Jewish MMA fighter Aaron Rajman’s death

2018

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mYNf98i2NMo

 

__________________________________

 

Why are most MMA fighters white while most boxers are black?

{We can see many white people winning in Olympic Wrestling and winning MMA championship title belts}.

https://www.quora.com/Why-are-most-MMA-fighters-white-while-most-boxers-are-black

__________________________________

 

4/9/2019 - Fight Science 101

https://fightscience101.blogspot.com/

 

__________________________________

 

10 People With Shocking and Extreme Deformities

2013

https://listverse.com/2013/03/26/10-people-with-shocking-and-extreme-deformities/

 

__________________________________

 

Every Single Winner of The World's Strongest Man

Aug 16, 2020

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SogSYhMQZdg

 

__________________________________

501 KG DEADLIFT WORLD RECORD POWERLIFTING & KETTLEBELLS IVAN MAKAROV

Dec 2, 2019

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7KhdXBqw71E

 
__________________________________


5 Legendary Powerlifting World Records That Got Broken In 2020

Apr 16, 2020

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OH07DIFRqNs

 
__________________________________


NEW WORLD RECORD SQUAT !! KEVIN OAK !!

Feb 9, 2020

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zaxksoHN1Ho

 
__________________________________

 Every Single Winner of The World's Strongest Man

•Aug 16, 2020

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SogSYhMQZdg

 

__________________________________

 

 

 

 __________________________________

 

 

 

 

__________________________________

 

 

 __________________________________

 

 

 

 _____________________________________

 

 

 Training Tips for Ectomorph Body Type

August 10, 2017

 

 

https://hubpages.com/health/Training-for-Ectomorphs

 

_____________________________________

 

 _____________________________________

_____________________________________

__________________________________

__________________________________

__________________________________


Section 2: IQ, Skull Shape & Genetics

__________________________________

__________________________________

__________________________________

_____________________________________

_____________________________________

 

 

 

_____________________________________

Size matters: a review and new analyses of racial diff€erences in cranial capacity and intelligence that refute Kamin and Omari

1999


http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.623.6675&rep=rep1&type=pdf


__________________________________


Do we really use 10% of our brain?

01 June 2020 | Science

The decades-old myth that we only use a small fraction of our brain power has even crept into popular culture, but is it true?

BBC Reel's Howard Timberlake summons the mental strength to investigate.

https://www.bbc.co.uk/reel/video/p08fqcky/do-we-really-use-10-of-our-brain-


__________________________________


Blacks in the US and in Africa consistently score lower on IQ tests than whites in the US and Europe, and Asians. Why? *PART I*

https://www.reddit.com/r/OpenandHonest/comments/3evdd3/blacks_in_the_us_and_in_africa_consistently_score/


__________________________________

 

 The Puzzle Of Indian IQ: A Country Of Gypsies And Jews

August 14, 2012

https://akarlin.com/2012/08/the-puzzle-of-indian-iq-a-country-of-gypsies-and-jews/


The question of Indian IQ is a big puzzle. Far trickier than China’s IQ which I think I’ve basically figured out (101-102 today; 106-108 genetic ceiling).

 

 

 

The PISA-adjusted IQ of India – as extrapolated from the states of Tamil Nadu and Himachal Pradesh, which are relatively rich and are reputed to have good school systems by Indian standards – is a miserly 75.4; Richard Lynn, in his latest estimates based on an international standardized test from 1970 and a more recent TIMSS study in the states of Rajasthan and Orissa is 82.2. The chart above compiled by Steve Sailer from Lynn’s data on numerous IQ tests also indicates it is the low 80’s. In my opinion the low 80’s figures given by the IQ tests is more accurately reflective of today’s Indian g because PISA is after all an academic test and Indian schools leave a lot to be desired.


__________________________________


IQs of Indians

April 15, 2016

https://thealternativehypothesis.org/index.php/2016/04/15/iqs-of-indians/

The median IQ for “Indians” has been notoriously difficult to pin down, largely because “Indian” is a fictitious race (and “India” is a fictitious country), but they exist today. So here we are, looking at the IQs of Indians in India, the UK and the United States.

For the IQs of Indians in India and the UK, I use Richard Lynn’s data, but did as much independent verification as I could, and Lynn’s numbers on Indians, to the extent I could check them, were totally verified in every instance. This was a lot of work, but it’s worth it to have peace of mind that these numbers are probably sound.

Richard Lynn is the only researcher I know of who does comprehensive global IQ estimates – he’s the only show in town for now, and so I mainly use his work as a starting point. These posts aren’t going away, and can be added to and modified.

 

 IQs of Indians in India 

 

The median IQ of Indians in the country of India is 82. The median IQ for the continent of India is 84.

 

The mean IQ of Indians in the country of India is 82.69, while the mean IQ for the continent of India is 82.87.

 

In 2009 two regions of India participated in the PISA tests. Their scores on reading, science and math together averaged 336. This translates to an IQ of 76, lower than all of the studies shown here.

 

IQs of Indians in Britain

The data from 2009 is sharply at odds with the older data. It comes from a test of schoolchildren using the “Cognitive Assessment Test”. The pre-2009 scores show an average of 90.42, while the results from the 2009 CAT scores is 95.17.

 

One can give a median number, but I don’t think it would be meaningful given the sharp jump. I’ll hedge my bets and estimate the IQs of Indians (from the subcontinent of India) living in the UK to be 93.

__________________________________

 

Racial IQ’s unlikely proof: Native Americans

April 8, 2019

https://theamericansun.com/2019/04/08/racial-iqs-unlikely-proof-native-americans/


This article seeks to prove that Racial IQ exists, using both laymen’s language, and an often ignored population which exhibits intelligence despite terrible socio-economic conditions: Native Americans.

This article was actually inspired by someone I argued with that argued that if Asians and Europeans evolved to be intelligent due to their need to plan food-acquisition, —something the Africans did not have to do due to year-round hunting seasons — then Native Americans should likewise have high IQ’s. I looked into it, and he was right. Natives, despite the hell-on-earth conditions they tend to live in, have a median IQ of 86 (1 point higher than that of US Blacks); Arctic Natives, who evolved in far harsher conditions, have a median IQ of 91.

Reflective of the fact that Natives are descended from East Asian stock, there is about a 10 point spread between the Visualization (higher) and Verbal (lower) IQ scores of both groups. This is especially of note considering that while the Verbal portion of the test is culture-biased, the Visualization portion is not. US Blacks, for instance, score 87 on the Verbal test, but only 83 on the Visualization test (in itself this should disprove the popular notion that the reason for US Blacks having low IQs is due to the test itself being culture biased).

Now, obviously IQ is not solely hereditary, or else rich and poor people of the same race would exhibit the same intelligence, which is not true. If one looks at the IQ of US Blacks and Whites compared to their socio-economic quartile, the lines are not flat, but rise in parallel, with the gap not closing even though richer people of both races have higher IQs than poorer ones.

Since environment does play a role (roughly 20%) in IQ, let us investigate the environment of the native Americans: in a word, terrible. Twenty two percent of Natives live on reservations, which Gallup has called “comparable to the Third World”. The majority of Native Americans (60%) live in urban areas, where they have higher poverty, uninsured, and mortality rates than any other group. These conditions are clearly much worse than that of either Hispanics or US Blacks, indeed far more comparable to that of Africans, who have an IQ average of 70. While information on the living standards of rural Native Americans is hard to come by, I think it’s safe to assume the remaining 18% of them aren’t in a great place.

Comparing just the Visualization scores, which aren’t culture-biased, Native Americans have an IQ of 96, and US Blacks have an IQ of 83. In other words, the group which has living conditions far more similar to Africans than to Whites has an IQ a full 16% higher than Blacks.

Now, some may argue that overall the singular absolute IQ difference of Blacks and Native Americans is statistically insufficient to prove racial IQ, but the singular IQ gap is actually proof of it. Based on the conditions Natives live in, if socio-economic conditions alone contributed to IQ, Natives would be far closer to a 70 IQ average, nowhere near an 85 IQ average, and most definitely would not exceed that 85 average.

It should be no wonder that the founding fathers, such as Thomas Jefferson, thought that many of the pre-reservation Natives could be integrated into our society, whereas Blacks could not. Thank you to the Heya Heyo people for proving Racial IQ.


__________________________________

Stereotyping Native Americans

https://www.ferris.edu/HTMLS/news/jimcrow/native/homepage.htm


__________________________________


ENVIRONMENT AND THE DRAW-A-MAN TEST: THE PERFORMANCE OF INDIAN CHILDREN


https://www.nec.navajo-nsn.gov/Portals/0/NN%20Research/Child%20Healty%20and%20Development/1946_%20Environmental%20and%20the%20draw-a-man%20test%20-%20the%20performance%20of%20indian%20children.pdf


__________________________________


Intelligence Testing of American Indian Children: Sidesteps in Quest of Ethical Practice

1984

https://pdxscholar.library.pdx.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1009&context=rri_facpubs


__________________________________


Brain size, IQ, and racial-group differences: Evidence from musculoskeletal traits

2001

http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.472.2731&rep=rep1&type=pdf


__________________________________

 

Japanese north–south gradient in IQ predicts differences in stature, skin color, income, and homicide rate

2013

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0160289613000949

 

__________________________________

 

 IQ and the Wealth of Nations

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IQ_and_the_Wealth_of_Nations

 

__________________________________

 
More Hispanics in U.S. Calling Themselves Indian

2011

https://www.nytimes.com/2011/07/04/nyregion/more-hispanics-in-us-calling-themselves-indian.html

 

__________________________________



Indians Aren't That Intelligent (On Average)

https://vdare.com/articles/indians-aren-t-that-intelligent-on-average

In this article, I summarize the evidence for an average IQ of 85 in the group designated South Asian/North African. The people of Bangladesh, India, Pakistan, Iraq, Iran, the Gulf States, the Near East, Turkey and North Africa have an IQ just below the world average of 90. This is much higher than the IQ of 70 found for Black Africans, but it is also much lower than the IQ of 100 found for Europeans.

As VDARE.COM readers will know, IQ tests were constructed in Western Europe and North America and standardized with an average IQ of 100. The "normal" range goes from "dull" (IQ around 85) to "bright" (IQ around 115). IQs of 70 suggest handicap, while IQs of 130 and above predict giftedness.

There are large inequalities in average IQ scores between groups. Herrnstein and Murray's (1994) The Bell Curve reported that the average IQ for "African" Americans is lower than those for "Latino", "White", "East Asian", and "Jewish" Americans (IQs = 85, 89, 103, 106, and 115, respectively, pp. 273-278).

In the 1970s the IQ debate became worldwide when British psychologist Richard Lynn showed that compared to a White IQ average of 100, East Asians average about 105 and sub-Saharan Africans around 70.

By 2006, Lynn had tabulated 620 IQ studies in 133 different countries. He clustered the countries into the ten genetic groupings identified by L. L. Cavalli-Sforza et al. in their mammoth 1994 History and Geography of Human Genes. The world average IQ had to be calibrated downwards to 90, as shown in the map.

World Distribution of IQ Scores of Indigenous (pre European migration)

Peoples (Adapted from Lynn, 2006)...



__________________________________

Race, Ethnicity, and Serious and Violent Juvenile Offending

June 2000

https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/ojjdp/181202.pdf

 

__________________________________


On Indian Land, Criminals Can Get Away With Almost Anything

February 22, 2013

https://www.theatlantic.com/national/archive/2013/02/on-indian-land-criminals-can-get-away-with-almost-anything/273391/

 

__________________________________


The Persistence of American Indian Health Disparities

2006

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1698152/


__________________________________


The Invention of Hispanics: What It Says About the Politics of Race

Dec 16th, 2019

https://www.heritage.org/civil-society/commentary/the-invention-hispanics-what-it-says-about-the-politics-race


__________________________________

Denying Genetics Isn’t Shutting Down Racism, It’s Fueling It

Mar. 30, 2018

https://nymag.com/intelligencer/2018/03/denying-genetics-isnt-shutting-down-racism-its-fueling-it.html

 

__________________________________

 

For centuries the West has found it useful to compare black people to monkeys

January 14, 2018

https://qz.com/quartzy/1179366/hm-monkey-hoodie-why-have-black-people-been-compared-to-monkeys-by-racists/

__________________________________

 

 Neuroscience and race

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroscience_and_race

__________________________________

Human brain recognizes and reacts to race

2010

https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/04/100426113108.htm

 

__________________________________

 

 Black humour is sign of high intelligence, study suggests

Jan 29, 2017


An appreciation of ‘sick jokes’ equates with high IQ and low aggression


https://www.theguardian.com/science/2017/jan/29/dark-humour-high-intelligence-study

 

__________________________________

Study: Racism shortens lives and hurts health of blacks by promoting genes that lead to inflammation and illness

2019

https://theconversation.com/study-racism-shortens-lives-and-hurts-health-of-blacks-by-promoting-genes-that-lead-to-inflammation-and-illness-122027

__________________________________

 

 Harvard EdCast: Racial Differences in Special Education Identification

March 5, 2020

An expert on federal education policy and special education — explains disproportionality and why so many students of color are placed in special education, often in separate classrooms from their peers. While income status is sometimes accepted as the reason behind this phenomenon, Schifter says that doesn't tell the full story. In this EdCast, Schifter shares recent research on this issue and discusses the challenges facing special education.

https://www.gse.harvard.edu/news/20/03/harvard-edcast-racial-differences-special-education-identification

__________________________________

 

 Sex differences in humans

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sex_differences_in_humans

 

 __________________________________

 

 Intelligence is Determined Primarily by Genes

https://www.human-intelligence.org/intelligence-is-genetic/




    1. High Heritability
    2. High Stability of Racial I.Q in all Environments
    3. Stability Over Time
    4. I.Q Differences are Reflected in Brain Size Differences
    5. Isolation Time
    6. Studies on Racial Hybrids
    7. Qualitative Differences in the Brain
    8. Adoption Studies
    9. Race Differences in Reaction Time
    10. Race Differences in Inspection Time
    11. European Admixture Among Afro-Americans
    12. 76 Musculoskeletal Features, Proximity to Homo Erectus
    13. Intelligence is Part of a Set of Evolutionary Traits
    14. Position in Evolution
    15. Regression to the Mean
    16. Inbreeding Depression
    17. Racial Differences in EEG
    18. Spearman’s hypothesis
    19. Heritability Increases with Age
    20. Racial Differences in Intellectual Maturation Speeds
    21. Existence of Racial Differences in Intelligence for 10 Thousand Year
    22. Differences in Gene Frequencies linked to Intelligence

__________________________________


Brain size, IQ, and racial-group differences: Evidence from musculoskeletal traits

2003

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S016028960200137X

__________________________________

 

Mental retardation

https://www.ebi.ac.uk/ols/ontologies/efo/terms?short_form=EFO_0003847


Subnormal intellectual functioning which originates during the developmental period. This has multiple potential etiologies, including genetic defects and perinatal insults. Intelligence quotient (IQ) scores are commonly used to determine whether an individual is mentally retarded. IQ scores between 70 and 79 are in the borderline mentally retarded range. Scores below 67 are in the retarded range. (Joynt, Clinical Neurology, 1992, Ch55, p28)

__________________________________

 

IQ Classifications in Educational Use

http://www.assessmentpsychology.com/iqclassifications.htm

IQ Classifications in Educational Use

Wechsler, David. Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Third edition
Psychological Corporation, 1997

Classification	IQ Score	Percent Included
		Theoretical Normal Curve	Actual Sample
Very Superior	130 and above	2.2	2.1
Superior	120-129	6.7	8.3
High Average*	110-119	16.1	16.1
Average	90-109	50.0	50.3
Low Average*	80-89	16.1	14.8
Borderline	70-79	6.7	6.5
Extremely Low*  **	69 and below	2.2	1.9

*The terms High Average, Low Average and Extremely Low correspond to the terms Bright Normal, Dull Normal and Mental Defective, respectively, used in the 1955 WAIS manual. **The term Extremely Low is used in place of the terms Mentally Retarded, used in the WAIS-R, and Intellectually Deficient, used in the WISC-III to avoid the implication that a very low IQ score is sufficient evidence by itself for the classification of "mental retardation" or "intellectually deficient."

IQ Classifications in Psychiatric Use Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition (DSM-IV) American Psychiatric Association, 1994

V62.89	Borderline Intellectual Functioning	IQ 71-84
317	Mild Mental Retardation	IQ 50-55 to approximately 70
318.0	Moderate Retardation	IQ 35-40 to 50-55
318.1	Severe Mental Retardation	IQ 20-25 to 35-40
318.2	Profound Mental Retardation	IQ below 20 or 25

The terms Educable Mentally Retarded and Trainable Mentally Retarded used in special education are roughly equivalent to DSM classifications for mild and moderate mental retardation, respectively.  The DSM diagnostic criteria further require an assessment and determination of impairment in adaptive functioning in order to make a diagnosis of mental retardation.

IQ Classifications No Longer in Use Terman, Lewis M. The Measurement of Intelligence. Houghton Mifflin Company, 1916 An explanation of and complete guide for the use of the Stanford Revision and extension of the Binet-Simon Intelligence Scale

140 and over	Genius or near genius
120-140	Very superior intelligence
110-120	Superior intelligence
90-110	Normal or average intelligence
80-90	Dullness
70-80	Borderline deficiency
Below 70	Definite feeble-mindedness

Mental deficiency used to be divided into the following sub-classifications, but these labels began to be abused by the public and are now largely obsolete: Borderline Deficiency (IQ 70-80), Moron (IQ 50-69), Imbecile (IQ 20-49) and Idiot (below 20). Mental deficiency is now generally called mental retardation.

__________________________________



Koko: Gorilla who mastered sign language dies in California

June 21, 2018

https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-44559261


"Koko - the gorilla known for her extraordinary mastery of sign language, and as the primary ambassador for her endangered species - passed away yesterday [Wednesday] morning in her sleep at the age of 46," a Gorilla Foundation press release said.

"Koko touched the lives of millions as an ambassador for all gorillas and an icon for interspecies communication and empathy. She was beloved and will be deeply missed."

The gorilla, who was said to have an IQ of between 75 and 95, could understand 2,000 words of spoken English. The average IQ for humans on many tests is 100, and most people score somewhere between 85 and 115.



__________________________________

Monkey mafia steal your stuff, then sell it back for a cracker

May 25, 2017

https://www.newscientist.com/article/2132748-monkey-mafia-steal-your-stuff-then-sell-it-back-for-a-cracker/


__________________________________


Monkeys hold tourists to ransom

May 25, 2017

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PJpCD3Z3z9g&feature=emb_title

 
__________________________________

Monkeys Steal People's Belongings to Trade for Food

Jan 20, 2016

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ovpsuyRanw8


__________________________________


Monkeys and Apes Have Entered The Stone Age

Jan 27, 2020

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gA8iE6YtHZ0


__________________________________


Manipulation complexity in primates coevolved with brain size and terrestriality

April 14, 2016

https://www.nature.com/articles/srep24528

Abstract

Humans occupy by far the most complex foraging niche of all mammals, built around sophisticated technology, and at the same time exhibit unusually large brains. To examine the evolutionary processes underlying these features, we investigated how manipulation complexity is related to brain size, cognitive test performance, terrestriality, and diet quality in a sample of 36 non-human primate species. We categorized manipulation bouts in food-related contexts into unimanual and bimanual actions, and asynchronous or synchronous hand and finger use, and established levels of manipulative complexity using Guttman scaling. Manipulation categories followed a cumulative ranking. They were particularly high in species that use cognitively challenging food acquisition techniques, such as extractive foraging and tool use. Manipulation complexity was also consistently positively correlated with brain size and cognitive test performance. Terrestriality had a positive effect on this relationship, but diet quality did not affect it. Unlike a previous study on carnivores, we found that, among primates, brain size and complex manipulations to acquire food underwent correlated evolution, which may have been influenced by terrestriality. Accordingly, our results support the idea of an evolutionary feedback loop between manipulation complexity and cognition in the human lineage, which may have been enhanced by increasingly terrestrial habits.

 

__________________________________

 

 Are Humans Getting Smarter or Dumber?

2013

https://www.livescience.com/37095-humans-smarter-or-dumber.html

The dulling of humanity

Even as the Flynn effect sends IQ scores skyrocketing, some researchers argue a darker view. Humans aren't getting smarter, they say. They're getting stupider.

In November 2012, Stanford University School of Medicine researcher Gerald Crabtree published two papers in the journal Trends in Genetics suggesting that humanity's intelligence peaked between 2,000 and 6,000 years ago.

Crabtree based this assertion on genetics. About 2,000 to 5,000 genes control human intelligence, he estimated. At the rate at which genetic mutations accumulate, Crabtree calculated that within the last 3,000 years, all of humanity has sustained at least two mutations harmful to these intellect-determining genes (and will sustain a couple more in another 3,000 years). Not every mutation will cause harm — genes come in pairs, and some weaknesses caused by mutation can be covered for by the healthy half of the pair, Crabtree wrote; but the calculation suggests that intelligence is more fragile than it seems.

Furthermore, he argued, intelligence isn't as evolutionarily important to humans today as it was when the species was hunter-gatherers. Thousands of years ago, failing to grasp the aerodynamics of throwing a spear when a lion was coming at you meant you were toast — no more passing along your genes to offspring. Modern man rarely faces such life-or-death tests of wits, Crabtree wrote. [10 Things That Make Humans Special]

Another theory holds that humanity's genetic capacity for intelligence is in decline because of a phenomenon called dysgenic mating...

 

__________________________________


Variability in Frontotemporal Brain Structure: The Importance of Recruitment of African Americans in Neuroscience Research

2010

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2964318/

__________________________________



Racial and Ethnic Differences in the Prevalence of Attention-deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder and Learning Disabilities Among U.S. Children Aged 3–17 Years

March 2020

https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/products/databriefs/db358.htm

 
 In 2016–2018, nearly 14% of children aged 3–17 years were reported as ever having been diagnosed with either attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) or a learning disability; non-Hispanic black children were the most likely to be diagnosed (16.9%).
   
 Among children aged 3–10 years, non-Hispanic black children were more likely to have ever been diagnosed with ADHD or a learning disability compared with non-Hispanic white or Hispanic children.
   
 Diagnosis of ADHD or a learning disability differed by federal poverty level for children in all racial and ethnic groups.
    
Diagnosis of ADHD or a learning disability differed by parental education among non-Hispanic white children only.

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and learning disabilities are the most commonly diagnosed neurodevelopmental disorders in children and often coexist. Previous research has suggested that the prevalence of these conditions may differ by race and Hispanic origin. Using timely, nationally representative data, this report examines the reported prevalence of ADHD and learning disabilities by race and ethnicity and select demographic characteristics that are associated with the diagnosis of these conditions.

 

__________________________________


Racial and ethnic disparities in survival of children with brain and central nervous tumors in the United States

September 24, 2020

https://www.docwirenews.com/abstracts/journal-abstracts/racial-and-ethnic-disparities-in-survival-of-children-with-brain-and-central-nervous-tumors-in-the-united-states-13/

__________________________________

 

Retrospective data suggests that the higher prevalence of benign paroxysmal positional vertigo in Individuals with type 2 diabetes is mediated by hypertension

2016

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4791946/


__________________________________


Genetics of Recurrent Vertigo and Vestibular Disorders

2011

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3178912/


__________________________________


Gender-Based Comorbidity in Benign Paroxysmal Positional Vertigo

September 4, 2014

https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0105546


__________________________________


Disorders of Balance and Vestibular Function in US Adults Data From the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 2001-2004

May 25, 2009

https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamainternalmedicine/fullarticle/773517


__________________________________


New type of vertigo identified

May 24, 2018

https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2018/05/180524174559.htm


With vertigo, people have episodes of dizziness that can last from minutes to days. Vertigo can be caused by serious conditions, such as tumors, or conditions that are fairly benign, such the inner ear disorder Meniere's disease. But for some people, no cause can be found.


__________________________________

 

Students of mixed races report suffering more health problems

https://www.stormfront.org/forum/t896952/


__________________________________



Study Finds the Mouth’s Mix of Microbes Differs Based on Ancestry

Nov. 26, 2019

https://asm.org/Articles/2019/November/Study-Finds-Racial-Differences-in-the-Mouth-s-Mix

Hundreds of microbial taxa colonize the teeth, tongue, cheeks, palates, tonsils and other hideaways of the human mouth. Oral-dwelling bacteria have been tied to problems like cavities and periodontal disease, and they may encode clues about other disease risks as well. They also play integral roles in regulating the immune system and absorbing nutrients.

mSystems: Racial Differences in the Oral Microbiome: Data from Low-Income Populations of African Ancestry and European Ancestry.

But not every mouth hosts the same microbial mix. An analysis of mouth rinse samples collected from more than 1,600 low-income people in the southeastern United States, published this week in mSystems, found significant differences in oral microbiome composition between African-Americans and European-Americans. Notably, African-American participants hosted more diverse populations.

“These findings call for research to understand how the racial difference in oral microbiome influences the health disparity,” the authors noted in the study.

The researchers identified 32 individual taxa—including some pathogens tied to periodontal disease—that differed significantly in abundance between the 2 races. For example, African American participants hosted a higher abundance of Bacteroidetes, species of which are common in the gut, and lower abundances of Actinobacteria and Firmicutes bacteria. Four rare pathogens associated with periodontal disease were more prevalent in African-Americans than in European-Americans.

Such differences could help elucidate connections between the microbiome and disease risk, as well. In previous work by the same group, for example, using data from the same cohort, the researchers found that people with higher levels of Actinobacteria in their oral microbiome had a lower risk of type II diabetes.

Other studies have reported finding differences in the microbiomes of the gastrointestinal tract, skin and vagina based on ancestry; a few have also reported finding differences in oral microbiomes. In one, published in 2013 in PLOS One, researchers analyzed saliva samples from 192 people representing 4 ethnicities: non-Hispanic blacks, non-Hispanic whites, Chinese, and Latinos. Another study, published in 2014 in BMC Microbiology, involved 152 samples collected from people in Alaska, Germany, and Africa.

Those studies found that the African-Americans had less, not more, diverse oral microbiomes, which is contrary to the new study. The mSystems authors hypothesize that because those earlier investigations involved small study populations, or used lower resolution gene sequencing tools, they may not have detected less prevalent microbes in the samples.

The new study is the largest, to date, to investigate ethnic differences in the oral microbiome, the researchers noted. It included 1,058 African-Americans and 558 European-Americans, all adults who had enrolled in the Southern Community Cohort Study, a long-running prospective study funded by the National Cancer Institute. Jirong Long, Ph.D., an epidemiologist at Vanderbilt University in Nashville, Tennessee, worked on the new study and has previously used data from the same cohort to probe the link between the oral microbiome and risk of colorectal cancer.

Long and her colleagues cautioned that while the new analysis suggests promising new avenues of investigation, further studies are needed—using shotgun metagenomic sequencing, for example—to better understand racial differences at the species level.


__________________________________

Your Ethnicity Determines the Species of Bacteria That Live in Your Mouth

Everyone has a unique “fingerprint” of oral bacteria species, and new research shows that, in isolation, it can be used to predict your ethnicity

2013

https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/your-ethnicity-determines-the-species-of-bacteria-that-live-in-your-mouth-4731531/

 

__________________________________

 

Racial Differences in the Oral Microbiome: Data from Low-Income Populations of African Ancestry and European Ancestry

2019

https://msystems.asm.org/content/4/6/e00639-19


__________________________________


Racial Differences in Susceptibility to Infection by Mycobacterium tuberculosis

1990

https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJM199002153220702

 

__________________________________


Racial Differences in Predictors of Dental Care Use

2002

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1464042/


__________________________________

 

RACIAL IDENTIFICATION IN THE SKULL AND TEETH

2000

https://ir.lib.uwo.ca/totem/vol8/iss1/4/


__________________________________


Race determination based on nonmetric teeth morphological traits

2019

http://www.srmjrds.in/article.asp?issn=0976-433X;year=2019;volume=10;issue=4;spage=233;epage=238;aulast=Kalistu


Abstract        

The relationship between dental morphological traits and ancestry has received the utmost amount of attention from dental anthropologists and forensic odontologists. Caucasoid, Mongoloids, and Negroid are the chief racial groups of the world. The dentition of each race has been reported to be unique to its race and has been employed to determine ancestry. Unfortunately, over the years, the concept of race has been fading away due to hybridization between races worldwide. Hence, one cannot solely rely on dental morphological traits to assign a race to an unknown. Nevertheless, even though dental morphological traits have been blended among the three races, there are still those traits that are dominant in one or the other ethnic group.

Introduction   
    
Top


Physical anthropologists, human biologists, and geneticists share the same idea that generally all humanity living today belong to the species, Homo sapiens. Anthropologists point out that nature and different environmental factors in which a certain population find themselves influences the ethnical patterns of that population and enables it to become accustomed in a particular environment and permits the multiplication and continued existence of that particular population. The segregation of human being into groups referred to as “races” is a result of different environmental impacts of their surroundings. Not only does the environmental factors segregate people into races, but also leads to erraticism within a specific race. Blumenfeld alluded two authors for the definition of race. Shipman et al. (1985) defined race as “a morphologically identifiable subset of a species.” Dyer,(1974:1) defined the word “race” as one that describes populations, and not individuals, and it suggests that a population, or group of populations, is amply diverse from all others in the species to be separately noticeable.

The main Caucasoids, Mongoloids, and Negroids are the main racial groups of the world. The people that originated from European countries are referred to as Caucasoids. The people that originate from Asian countries belong to the race Mongoloid, including Native and Latin Americans. Negroids are people that hail from African countries. However, modern trends in physical anthropology have revised these words to be more exact. Caucasoids and Negroids are at the moment denoted as whites and blacks, respectively, whereas Mongoloids are at present divided into binary groups: Asians and Southwest Mongoloids. Nevertheless, nowadays, there exist numerous different human groups due to more people traveling around the world, exposure to media and intermarriages. As a result, pure race no longer exist as such. However, even though unblemished races are no longer existent, forensic anthropologist, forensic odontologists, and geneticist should be well equipped to identify an unrecognizable body by race, as the concept of race persist to be used.

Establishing the biological race (ancestry) of skeletal remains is an important part of forensic identification. Race, along with sex, stature, and age, is one of the four principal factors used when determining the biological identity of an individual in a forensic context. The lack of documentation often employed to aid in the process of recognizing skeletal dental remnants of an individual poses a challenge for investigators to establish the origin of the owner of the remains discovered. Discriminant function analysis of craniometrical traits is commonly the favored method for ethnic analysis in forensic cases, but, requires that the skulls are well-preserved. In cases where the skull is fractured, dental traits would be a more helpful tool to establish the ethnicity of an individual in lieu.

Several studies have demonstrated the likelihood of using the dissimilarities in the appearance of dental morphological characteristics among various cultural groups to establish their race. Scott and Turner used a qualitative approach based on a number of nonmetric dental traits for identifying the race of isolated human remains. This tactic is in general trustworthy if these traits are employed as a set in lieu of isolated variables. Further methodologies to predict heritage are more quantitative, using multivariate statistics, such as logistic regression to equate dissimilarities in metric and nonmetric dental traits among European Americans and African Americans. Using a sample of 40 people, Edgar effectively assigned an origin to each individual, either European American or African American with an accuracy of 90%. This was achieved by utilizing eight nonmetric dental morphologies. Furthermore, various studies claim that there is notable differences between metric and nonmetric dental traits among the subadult teeth of various tribal groups.

This article aims to review the various morphological traits of cranium and teeth often used to establish ancestry. For simplicity, the author opts to use the three major races, namely, Mongoloids, Caucosoids, and Negroids.


Skull

Several studies have been carried out to describe the cranium of different races over the past years. By employing the skull-based categorization, anthropologists described the cranium of each racial group.

• Caucasoid is branded by a tall dolichocephalic skull, receded zygomas, large brow ridge, and projecting-narrow nasal apertures as described by Alsoleihat
• Alsoleihat categorized people of the Negroid race as having a short dolichocephalic skull, receded zygomas, and wide nasal apertures
• Lastly, Alsoleihat distinguished the people belonging to the race Mongoloid by their medium brachycephalic skull, projecting zygomas, small brow ridge, and small nasal apertures.

In the same manner, Durbar used 585 crania from eight (Egypt, Nigeria, Palestine, India, Burma, North America, and South America) diverse areas and compared 30 variations which pointed out some of the anthropological and anatomical features used for racial identification [Table 1]. Durbar results are similar to those of previous studies that indicated that Caucasian (or whites) are devoid of the extension of the lower jaw known as the prognathism, plus, they present a minimal projection of the alveolar ridge. Their facial aspects are normally reduced, with a tower-shaped nasal bones and tear-shaped nasal cavity. The palate is triangular, and the skull has a sloping eye orbital formation with prominent forehead and cranium.

 

 

 

Table 1: Racial Variation of different skulls from Egypt, Nigeria, Palestine, India, Burma, North and South America by Umme Salma Durbar (2014)


The cranium of a Negroid is described as lengthy, narrow in breadth, and has a lower height. Blacks or Negroids have a broad skull and round nasal cavity and lack a nasal sill. The palate is rectangular and poses a prominent facial projection in the area of the jaw and mouth. The orbit is squarish or rectangular in shape. The skull being long anterior-posteriorly, it is said to be dolichocephalic, with a flat sagittal contour and a smooth-edged occipital shape. Blacks possess a jawbone with lower, wider, and more vertical ramus, with a bigger corpal and longer dental arch [Table 2].

 

 

Table 2: Essential craniofacial trait variations commonly used for racial identification by Blumenfeld (2000)


Mongoloids, or what is referred to as Asians have skulls that are long in length, broad in breadth and have a medium height, considered to be between the high Caucasoid skull and the low Negroid skull. The occipital shape is angular, and the nuchal muscle markings are reasonable prominent. The malar bones (zygomatic bones) retreats in the Caucasoid skull which can make the skull appear somewhat pointed [Table 2].

Blumenfeld reviewed several unlike morphological distinctions in the cranium and dentition that occur among dissimilar racial groups and summarized the findings in the [Table 2] below.


Caucasoid   
    

Maxillary teeth protruding over the mandibular teeth are commonly observed in this particular race. Carabelli's trait, seemingly first described in 1842 by Von Carabelli may be the most studied of all dental morphological variables. The upper first permanent molars and the upper second primary molars host the extra cusp on the mesiolingual aspects. The Cusp of Carabelli does not just manifest itself as a cusp but may appear in the form of a pit, furrow or even as a trivial protuberance. Several studies report this feature commonly occurring in “White's” teeth with an incidence of 35%–50% and are seldom observed among Blacks and Asian teeth. The presence of the cusp has prompt researchers to come up with different theories that might shed light on its existence. As per Dahlberg, attributable to transformative diminished in the length (mesiodistal width) of the upper molars, the Cusp of Carabelli's developed to make up for that decrease, extending the occlusal surface of the molars on the buccolingual viewpoint. Another study argues that the existence of Carabelli's trait may be due to resistance of the first molar to excessive biomechanical stresses. The frontal teeth of Caucasoids are described as “chisel-shaped” and are commonly reduced with smoother lingual surface. The arch of Caucasoid is normally narrow “v” shaped and renders little space for the teeth to develop properly. Hence, crowding of teeth is a distinguishable feature used to identify individuals of the above-mentioned race. In addition, overbites with the upper jaw teeth protruding over the lower jaw teeth are commonly observed in this particular race. Furthermore, Scott and Turner report that this race is characterized by low frequencies of cusps 6 and 7, protostylids and deflective wringles.

  Mongoloid   
    
This race has racial discriminating features that are better appreciated in the permanent teeth rather than the primary teeth. Edge-to-edge bite was seen in Mongoloid dentitions when the lower jaw and upper jaw are shut. Unlike the Caucasoid dentition, Mongoloids do not present an overbite. The incisor teeth normally will occlude edge-to-edge resulting in occlusal wear on the incisors. Blumenfeld quotes Ubelaker (1989), who opined that Mongoloids have the largest teeth in size as compared with those of the other ethnic groups (Negroids and Caucasoids). Bailit, as cited by John et al., revealed that the Lateral Incisors are seen large in Asian ancestry comparative to the adjacent incisors. This was verified amongst the Japanese, Where, 19% of the central incisors in male were bigger than the lateral incisors. On the contrary, the values for American Whites and Norwegian were 33% and 24%, respectively. Shoveling, observed on the lingual surface of the centrals is described as the most outstanding diagnostic feature in the Mongoloid dentition. Complement of the minimal edges melded with a raised cingulaum produce a profound lingual fossa, and when the edges blurs toward the incisal edge, it brings about a “shovel” or “scoop” shape. Shoveling is reported to be observed in Mongoloids with an incidence of 90%. The “double-shovel shaped” incisor in Mongoloid are formed by lingual marginal ridges. According to John et al., when the Caribelli's cusp is present, then shoveling of central maxillary incisors would be absent in most cases. Owing to this, shoveling Inferable from this, scooping and Carabelli's qualities have been considered as distinguishing markers of Chinese (Mongoloids) and Whites. Mongoloids bicuspids may display a tubercle on the buccal cusp and the tooth is commonly referred to as Leong's premolar or Oriental premolar. Mongoloid's first and third molars are bigger than the second molars. This contradicts the general trend of progressive reduction in tooth size towards the back. The molar roots are more regularly fused, shorter, and less splayed. Several studies have assessed the occlusal morphology of the permanent mandibular first and second molars, and results indicate that there is a constant occurrence of 5 cusps pattern with Y grooves in the first mandibular molars and 4 cusps pattern with + grooves. Dholia et al. have evaluated the occlusal morphology of the lower first and second molars of Gujarati inhabitants, India. In agreement with previous studies, analysis indicate that 5 cusp with Y groove pattern was seen in about 47% of the mandibular first molars and 4 cusp and + groove pattern in 88.5% for second molar in Gujarati population. Therefore, the author concluded that the dissimilarity in degree of expression and occurrence of teeth traits in unlike populations varies and that this may be of great assistance in forensic identification.[20] There may likewise be the nearness of protostylid cusp which is on the buccal surfaces of the mesiobuccal cusps of the lower perpetual molars and lower second essential molar. When all is said in done, Mongoloids have an explanatory curve with enormous incisors, canines, little premolars, and huge molars behind them. This is underlined guideline speaking particularly in the lower curve for recognizing a person as a Mongoloid.


  Negroids
        

The people of African origin have smaller teeth compared to other races, with spacing in between. Furthermore, Negroids often tend to have excessive teeth. The mandibular first premolar has two distinct cusps, even it can be with three cusps. Not at all like with the Mongoloids and Caucosoids, cusp of Carabelli and scoop molded incisor is seldom found in this race. In contrast to the Mongoloids that often do not poses the third molar, Negroids always have the third molars and are less likely to be impacted. Considering the mandibular molars, Shara Bailey's results indicate that the first molar of Sub Saharan African had seven cusps in most cases and second molar of the San people had Y grooves in high frequencies. Blumenfeld cited EI-Najjar and McWilliams (1978) and stated that the Negroid palate is rectangular in shape, or pointed and narrow. Similarly, Benjamin (2000) studied the shape and size of maxillary arches of American Blacks and Whites in an attempt to point out the racial differences. The study revealed that arch size is notably larger in American blacks than whites, and arch form is squarer and less tapered in blacks in the canine-premolar region. Moreover, the first permanent lower molar in the Blacks dentition often displays the “Y5” cusp pattern. Shara (2000) carried out a study to assess 18 traits of ten populations representing the three major racial groups (Negroids, Caucasoids, and Mongoloid). The Mean Measure of Divergence analysis was used to find out how diverged the 18 traits are in the ten populations, including San and Sub Saharan Africans. The multivariate analysis indicated that the populations indeed differ in their dentition morphologies, with the Sub Saharan Africans showing a low-frequency occurrence of the shoveling and double shoveling of maxillary central incisors. Additionally, results also suggest that there is a connection between the recent Northern Africans and Europeans (Neandertals). This clearly indicates the existence of inter-racial relationship, which is not astonishing, considering the short distance between Europe and Northern Africa. This led to the evolution of the unique traits of each race giving birth to intermediate traits. Similarly, Scott and Turner (1997) opined that dentally, North Africans bear a resemblance to Europeans and Western Asians to some extent. Furthermore, Shara (2000) states that even though the shoveling and double shoveling of central incisor is a marker for Mongoloids, it is also observed in the sub-Saharan Africans in a much lower frequency.2 This findings correlate with other studies that emphasized that despite the fact that shoveling commonly indicates Mongoloid, it may occur in other races as well.[2],[4],[10],[13] A mesial ridge is reported to appear in high frequencies in the Sub Saharan Africans canines [Table 3]. This trait was also reported by Turner et al., as prominent in the Bushman of Africa and named it the “Bushman canine.” To evade topographical designators, Turner et al., referred to the Bushman canine as the mesial ridge.



__________________________________


RACIAL ARCHITECTURE OF HUMAN MANDIBLE-AN ANTHROPOLOGICAL STUDY

June 2013

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/269521971_RACIAL_ARCHITECTURE_OF_HUMAN_MANDIBLE-AN_ANTHROPOLOGICAL_STUDY



__________________________________

A Biometric Study of the Human Mandible

June 1936

https://www.jstor.org/stable/2334126?seq=1

 

__________________________________

Face Variations by Ethnic Group

https://www.beautyanalysis.com/beauty-and-you/face-variations/face-variations-ethnic-group/

 

__________________________________


Population variation in the front view of the face

http://www.femininebeauty.info/ethnic-comparisons/face-front

__________________________________

The Role of Genetic Factors in the Human Face, Jaws and Teeth: A Review

https://europepmc.org/backend/ptpmcrender.fcgi?accid=PMC2906160&blobtype=pdf


__________________________________


Non-Metric Cranial Differentiation Between Asian and Native American Populations for Ancestry Assessment

2017

https://digitalcommons.lsu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=5582&context=gradschool_theses

 
__________________________________


Mandibular morphology of the Mongoloid race in Medan according to age groups

2018

https://e-journal.unair.ac.id/MKG/article/view/6697


__________________________________


Did My Child Get His Under bite from Me?

April 8, 2020

https://newparkortho.com/are-underbites-hereditary/


Underbites, or mandibular prognathism, are characterized by the lower jaw protruding out past the upper jaw. This then causes the lower teeth to cover the upper teeth and can make people self-conscious.
But is an underbites hereditary?

“Most underbites are, in fact, hereditary,” says Dr. Nima Hajibaik, who provides underbites treatment in children. “Underbites affect between five and ten percent of the population, and for most people, it’s a trait they are born with.”

Some ethnic groups are actually more prone to developing underbites than the rest of the population. Those of Asian descent have a higher percentage of mandibular prognathism. The Habsburgs, a European royal family, were also known for their protruding jaws.

While you can’t fight your genes, there are some environmental factors that can lead to a protruding jaw, leading children to need underbites correction. They include:

    Tongue thrusting – this occurs when the tongue is constantly pressed against the bottom teeth.
    Mouth breathing, which can actually push the jaw forward while the jaw is being developed.
    Poor lip and mouth posture



__________________________________

Racial variation in some parts of the skull involved in chewing

June 16, 2005

 

 

https://majorityrights.com/weblog/comments/racial_variation_in_some_parts_of_the_skull_involved_in_chewing/


__________________________________

 

 Sexual Dimorphism in Human Teeth from Dental Morphology and Dimensions: A Dental Anthropology Viewpoint

March 27th, 2013

https://www.intechopen.com/books/sexual-dimorphism/sexual-dimorphism-in-human-teeth-from-dental-morphology-and-dimensions-a-dental-anthropology-viewpoi


__________________________________

 

Effect of Gender, Ethnicity and Age of Patient on Size of Teeth and Overall Health of Teeth: An Analysis of Panoramic X-rays

2016

https://digital.stpetersburg.usf.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1207&context=honorstheses

 

__________________________________

Crooked bite may indicate early life stress

April 13, 2017

Dentistry researchers identify novel marker for developmental instability

https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2017/04/170413161044.htm

 

__________________________________

Why do many black people have upper jaws, and hence teeth, that protrude significantly?

https://www.quora.com/Why-do-many-black-people-have-upper-jaws-and-hence-teeth-that-protrude-significantly


__________________________________


Skin and Bones: The Contribution of Skin Tone and Facial Structure to Racial Prototypicality Ratings

July 18, 2012

https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0041193

__________________________________


'Rocker jaw'. This is a characteristic of which ethnic group?

http://www.warrencountyschools.org/userfiles/3394/Classes/130667/BR%20Wk%201.ppt?id=427604


When attempting to identify a skeleton, craniofacial morphology (the structure and form of the skull and face) is the best indicator of race. One group of human beings has a unique, rounded jaw bone which is called a 'rocker jaw'. This is a characteristic of which ethnic group?
D. Hawaiians - The 'rocker jaw' is so called because it will rock back and forth like a rocking chair if gently pushed.

__________________________________


Why do so many black people have gaps in their front teeth?

https://www.quora.com/Why-do-so-many-black-people-have-gaps-in-their-front-teeth?share=1


__________________________________

 

Shape of human TEETH can reveal the owner's genetic history and could be used to identify people in forensic investigations and trace the evolution of our species using fossils

April 22, 2020

https://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-8244735/Shape-human-teeth-help-reconstruct-genetic-relationships.html


__________________________________

 

 Comparative Study on the Effects of Ethnicity on Wisdom Tooth Eruption

2007

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/341160562_Take_Your_Kung-Flu_Back_to_Wuhan_Counseling_Asians_Asian_Americans_and_Pacific_Islanders_With_Race-Based_Trauma_Related_to_COVID-19

 

__________________________________


Are wisdom teeth (third molars) vestiges of human evolution?

https://creation.com/are-wisdom-teeth-third-molars-vestiges-of-human-evolution


__________________________________


Slow Down! Why Some Languages Sound So Fast

2011

http://content.time.com/time/health/article/0,8599,2091477,00.html


__________________________________


Racial differences in periodontal disease and 10-year self-reported tooth loss among late middle-aged and older adults: the dental ARIC study

2017

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28585323/

__________________________________


Racial, Occupational, and Cultural Variations in Human Teeth: Teeth as Evidence in Forensic Identification

    29-May-2019


http://www.ijofo.org/article.asp?issn=2542-5013;year=2019;volume=4;issue=1;spage=7;epage=10;aulast=Sankeertimala;type=3


__________________________________

 
Skull Characteristics on Race

https://quizlet.com/128341134/skull-characteristics-on-race-flash-cards/

 

__________________________________


Identifying the ethnicity of a skull

https://www.futurelearn.com/courses/forensic-facial-reconstruction/0/steps/25658


__________________________________


Abnormalities of the Teeth

http://www.columbia.edu/itc/hs/dental/d7710/client_edit/dental_anomalies.pdf


__________________________________

Ancient teeth help reveal long history of epidemics

Jul 25, 2020

https://www.washingtonpost.com/health/ancient-teeth-show-history-of-epidemics-is-much-older-than-we-thought/2020/07/24/4f18ed94-b641-11ea-a8da-693df3d7674a_story.html

__________________________________

Comparative Study on the Effects of Ethnicity on Wisdom Tooth Eruption

Dec 2007

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/6376246_Comparative_Study_on_the_Effects_of_Ethnicity_on_Wisdom_Tooth_Eruption

__________________________________

Do people of different races have different voices?

7/23/12

https://io9.gizmodo.com/do-people-of-different-races-have-different-voices-5928125


__________________________________


Race and sex differences in teeth.

2008


https://mathildasanthropologyblog.wordpress.com/2008/04/27/race-and-sex-differences-in-crown-size/

__________________________________


Effect of Gender, Ethnicity and Age of Patient on Size of Teeth and Overall Health of Teeth: An Analysis of Panoramic X-rays

2016

https://digital.stpetersburg.usf.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1207&context=honorstheses


__________________________________


Racial, Occupational, and Cultural Variations in Human Teeth: Teeth as Evidence in Forensic Identification

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/333451543_Racial_Occupational_and_Cultural_Variations_in_Human_Teeth_Teeth_as_Evidence_in_Forensic_Identification

__________________________________

The Tooth and Skin Colour Interrelationship across the Different Ethnic Groups

January 2019

https://www.hindawi.com/journals/ijd/2014/146028/


__________________________________

Racial characteristics of human teeth

2017

http://www.ijofo.org/article.asp?issn=2542-5013;year=2017;volume=2;issue=1;spage=38;epage=42;aulast=Rawlani


__________________________________


How Your Teeth Reveal Clues About Your Ancestry

November 15, 2016

https://owlcation.com/stem/TEETH-Clues-To-Your-Ancestry



What Dental Anthropology Tells Us

Dental anthropology is a fascinating field of study that uses dental remains to determine, among other things, the race and heritage of a person. I knew teeth were important indicators of our heritage, but curiosity prompted me to do some research. The Texas Archeological Research laboratory has been studying prehistoric dental remains to trace populations in North America.

My daughter has a talon cusp, also called an eagle talon cusp. Around 1% to 6% of the global population have this cusp. A variation of this ridge is the “Uto-Aztecan” premolar, which is found only among Native American populations, mostly in Arizona.

These dental ridges and bumps seem to occur only in people descended from Native American, Inuit, Aleutian, or Chinese people. These populations are understood by dental anthropologists to have extended from the Siberian population many centuries ago.

In addition to dental features, it is possible that other genetic markers may be associated with these peoples, as well. An Associated Press article reported on researchers at Stanford University who found that an "extremely rare mutation of the Y chromosome may be a genetic marker unique to the people who migrated to the Americas 30,000 years ago…This mutation exists only in Indian populations in North and South America, as well as Eskimos.”

More Dental Traits Connected to Native American Heritage

Shovel incisors. Another dental trait indicative of Native American ancestry is shovel incisors, or shovel-shaped incisors (which I have!). The roots of these teeth are double the size of the tooth. The tooth itself is thinner and concave on the backside, with a scooped appearance, like a shovel. Shovel teeth can also have ridges. This feature can be mild or exaggerated. The roots are strong and often run deep into the jawbone, even attaching to the bone itself.

Winged incisors. Winged incisors (front teeth) are also seen among Inuit and Native American peoples. They are called winged incisors because they grow side by side to form a V pattern.

Three-rooted molars. Another trait my ancestors could have had was a three-rooted molar, instead of the more typical two-rooted molar.
European Ancestry and the Carabelli Cusp

My Native American ancestors were not the only people with distinct dental traits. Some Europeans have an additional bump on the outside of their upper molars. This bulge is called a Carabelli Cusp, named after the hard-working dentist of the Austrian Emperor Franz. The Cusp of Carabelli is a heritable feature, so its presence indicates European ancestry.

People of European ancestry tend to have teeth that are flat, without shovels or ridges. Their teeth are smooth on the front and the back. Molars typically have two roots instead of three.



__________________________________

Influence of sex and ethnic tooth-size differences on mixed-dentition space analysis

2013

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3564554/

__________________________________


Why Do Humans Have Canine Teeth and More Questions From Our Readers

2016

https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smithsonian-institution/humans-canine-teeth-questions-readers-180959074/

__________________________________


Ever Wonder Why Indigenous People Had Straight Teeth?

https://www.cheeseslave.com/ever-wonder-why-did-indigenous-people-had-straight-teeth/


__________________________________


Thick Hair, Small Boobs, Shovel Shaped Teeth and More

2013

https://dna-explained.com/2013/02/17/thick-hair-small-boobs-shovel-shaped-teeth-and-more/

Yep, there’s a gene for these traits, and more.  The same gene, named EDAR (short for Ectodysplasin receptor EDARV370A), it turns out, also confers more sweat glands and distinctive teeth and is found in the majority of East Asian people.

This is one of the results of the National Geographic’s Genographic project.  This mutation found at location rs3827760 on chromosome 2 occurred about 35,000 years ago.  It apparently has conferred some advantage to its carriers, because it is found in the majority of Asian people today.  We don’t exactly know why that happened, but maybe ancient male Asians preferred thick haired, small boobed and sweaty women.


__________________________________


Shovel-shaped incisors


https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shovel-shaped_incisors


Shovel-shaped incisors (or, more simply, shovel incisors) are incisors whose lingual surfaces are scooped as a consequence of lingual marginal ridges, crown curvature or basal tubercles, either alone or in combination.[citation needed]

Shovel-shaped incisors are significantly common in Amerindians from North, Central and South America. They are also common in East and Central Asians, Hungarians, the Eskimo and Aleut peoples of Northeast Asia and North America (including but not limited to the Inuit peoples of eastern Alaska, arctic Canada and Greenland). In Europeans and Africans, shovel-shaped upper incisors are uncommon or not present. There is a spectrum of the degree of shoveled-ness, ranging on a scale from 0 to 7 of spatulate incisors to shoveled incisors. It was theorized that positive selection for shovel shaped incisors over the spatulate incisors are more commonly found in anthropoids within cultures that used their teeth as tools due to a greater structural strength in increased shovel shaped incisors. However, more modern research suggests that instead genetics plays a role in the degree of shoveled-ness. There have been reports where Non-Asiatic Groups such as Europeans, Sub Saharan Africans, and South Asians, having Shovel Shape Teeth, but that could be the case of having East Asian or Native American Ancestry.

In some instances, incisors can present a more pronounced version of this called double shovel-shaped. When present, shovel-shaped incisors can indicate correlation among populations and are considered to be one of the non-metrical traits in osteology. Structurally resembling the shovel-shaped incisors, double-shovel-shaped incisors are distinguished by a more pronounced mesial ridge comparing to the distal ridge. Similarly, the grades for both shovel-shaped incisors and the double shovel-shaped incisors in females are significantly greater than that in males.

Shovel-shaped dental characteristic are also observed in Homo erectus like the Peking Man and in Neanderthals, although the morphology of these shoveled incisors is distinct from the modern human form of shoveling. The morphology of Neanderthal's anterior teeth has been seen as an adaptation to the heavy use of their canines and incisors in processing and chewing food, and the use of their teeth for activities other than feeding.



__________________________________



Racial characteristics of human teeth with special emphasis on the Mongoloid dentition

1996

http://www.mjpath.org.my/past_issue/MJP1996.1/mongoloid-dentition.pdf


__________________________________


How Ancient Teeth Reveal the Roots of Humankind

2018

https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/ancient-teeth-reveal-our-roots-180969495/

__________________________________


Tooth emergence in Australian Aboriginals

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/646323/

__________________________________


Difference Between Aboriginal Skull and Caucasian Skull

http://www.differencebetween.net/science/difference-between-aboriginal-skull-vs-caucasian-skull/

__________________________________

Rheumatic disease and the Australian Aborigine

https://ard.bmj.com/content/58/5/266

__________________________________


DNA results from Aboriginal men has shocked researchers

Apr 16, 2016

https://www.thevintagenews.com/2016/04/16/dna-results-from-aboriginal-men-has-shocked-researchers/



A recent genetic test that was done on Aboriginal Australian men has revealed something quite different from what researchers expected. This genetic test is the first-ever completed analysis of the Y chromosomes from the Aboriginals. In the testing, it was revealed that there was a deep indigenous genetic history which actually traced all the way back to the first settlement on the continent nearly 50,000 years ago. These results challenge a previous theory that researchers had suggesting that there was an influx of people from India into Australia around 4,000 to 5,000 years ago.

The test that was done takes the DNA sequencing from the Y chromosome, which can only be transmitted from father to son. The results showed that there was no type of prehistoric migration of these indigenous people. The results actually show a long, independent history in Australia.


Modern humans had arrived in Australia about 50,000 years ago, the ancestors of the present-day Aboriginal Australians. They were among the earliest settlers outside of Africa. They arrived on the ancient continent, known as Sahul and which is today’s Australia, Tasmania, and New Guinea, most likely thousands of years before modern humans had arrived in Europe.

However, the team of researchers still have one unsolved mystery from the results of the genetic test. The question they ask is how exactly did the dingo, their native dog, arrive in Australia 5,000 years ago? Changes were also made in stone tool use and language around that same time, which raises questions about whether there were genetic additions to the Australia Aboriginal population.

Two previous genetic studies, one of which was also based on the Y chromosome, had suggested that those changes coincided with mixing Aboriginal and Indian populations about 5,000 years ago. A researcher on the team, Anders Bergstrom, had said that the team worked closely with the Aboriginal communities in order to sequence the Y chromosome DNA from 13 male volunteers in order to look into their ancestry. The data revealed that the Aboriginal Australian Y chromosomes were very distinct from the Indian ones, resulting in the previous studies being excluded from the puzzle as they no longer provided the evidence for a prehistoric migration from India. Bergstrom stated that the results agree with the archaeological record about when the people first arrived in that part of the world.

An associate professor at La Trobe University, Dr. John Mitchell, said that there is obviously a lot of interest in the Aboriginal community, so many people want to explore their genetic ancestry. Without their cooperation, none of the testing would be possible. The first step for the team, even before the articles about the researchers’ finds are published, is to return the results of the testing to the people who volunteered. Mitchell explained that the collaboration in genome sequencing and exploration of the Aboriginals’ ancient history was made possible


To further their research, the team is looking into how the dingo got to Australia, as well as into why other people like the seafaring Polynesians never settled on the continent.   In order to rule out external genetic influences on the populations, the researchers will need to expand the genetic analyses beyond the Y chromosome and look into the whole genome.

Lesley Williams was responsible for the liaison with the Aboriginal community. She said that as an Aboriginal Elder she was delighted to help with the research. She added that she was not surprised that the results had confirmed that the ancestors had taught the community for many generations. She also stated that the community had lived there since the Dreaming.

The group leader at the Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Dr. Chris Tyler Smith, said that if the team fully sequences and analyzes Y-chromosomal DNA, they will be able to trace ancient human migrations; by genetically unearthing ancient history the team can then inform the living Aboriginal people about their ancestry. He added that this is made possible by using technology that has been available to researchers only in the last decade.

__________________________________



Aboriginal Australians 'have been genetically isolated for 50,000 years'

2016

DNA study says there is no direct evidence they ever intermarried with South-East Asians as some had suggested

https://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/aboriginal-australians-have-been-genetically-isolated-for-20000-years-a6895686.html


__________________________________



Mungo Man

http://www.convictcreations.com/aborigines/prehistory.htm


Turning evolution upside down

In the study of human evolution, Australia has not traditionally believed to have much to offer; however, the skeletal record has thrown up a few spanners in the works that may one day transform beliefs about where humans came from.

One of these spanners is Mungo Man, who was discovered in 1974 in the dry lake bed of Lake Mungo in west NSW. Mungo Man was a hominin who was estimated to have died 62,000 years ago and was ritually buried with his hands covering his penis. Anatomically, Mungo Man's bones were distinct from other human skeletons being unearthed in Australia. Unlike the younger skeletons that had big-brows and thick-skulls, Mungo Man's skeleton was finer, and more like modern humans.

The ANU's John Curtin School of Medical Research found that Mungo Man's skeleton's contained a small section of mitochondrial DNA. After analysing the DNA, the school found that Mungo Man's DNA bore no similarity to the other ancient skeletons, modern Aborigines and modern Europeans. Furthermore, his mitochondrial DNA had become extinct. The results called into question the 'Out of Africa' theory of human evolution. If Mungo Man was descended from a person who had left Africa in the past 200,000 years, then his mitochondrial DNA should have looked like all of the other samples.


Another spanner in the traditional theories are the Kow Swamp skeletons from northern Victoria, which are reminiscent of Homo erectus. Specifically, they have thick brow ridges, sloping foreheads and very large teeth. If the Kow Swamp skeletons had been found in Indonesia and dated at 100,000 + years, then they might have been categorised as Homo erectus but being found in Australia and dated at only 10,000 years was problematic. According to traditional theories, Homo erectus never reached Australia and was believed to have died out when Homo sapiens reached Indonesia in excess of 50,000 years ago. Even if the Kow Swamp people weren't Homo erectus, it was hard to explain why an ancient looking people occupied Australia after a more modern looking people. As explained by Professor Alan Thorne,

    "The Kow Swamp people have thick brow ridges, very large faces and the biggest teeth that have ever existed in modern humans. And that creates a problem. They look ancient but at 10,000 years of age they’re much younger than the lightly built Mungo people. How could that be?"

One academic, Dr Tim Stone from the University of Melbourne, tried to argue the unusual skeletal shapes were the result of some kind of localised adaptation to the cold. (1) Stone basically argued that the Homo sapiens of the area evolved to look like Homo erectus because the body shape was better suited to the climate. In Stone's view, no other Australian population groups looked like them because the Kow Swamp people became geographically isolated for tens of thousands of years.

Stone's argument was an illogical considering that Kow Swamp was on a relatively flat area of land near the Murray River, which would likely attract high volumes of human traffic. As a point of comparison, a small population of humans in Tasmania were genetically isolated for at least 10,000 years in a very cold climate. Although paintings and photos show a slight divergence from some mainland Aborigines, their skeletons and features looked very similar to modern gracile humans.





__________________________________

Aboriginal Australians, Pacific Islanders carry DNA of unknown human species, research analysis suggests

 
October 2016

https://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-10-26/dna-of-extinct-human-species-pacific-islanders-analysis-suggests/7968950

 

__________________________________

 

Close inbreeding and low genetic diversity in Inner Asian human populations despite geographical exogamy

2018

https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-018-27047-3


__________________________________

“Chinese Are a Subspecies”

All Look Same?

http://alllooksame.com/chinese-are-a-subspecies/

 

__________________________________

Largest Ever Study of Chinese People’s Genetics Reveals Insights on Migration Patterns, Diet, Disease

October 12, 2018

Scientists analyzed DNA samples from 141,431 pregnant Chinese women, or roughly 1/10,000 of the country’s population

https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/largest-ever-study-chinese-peoples-genetics-reveals-insights-migration-patterns-diet-disease-180970528/

 

__________________________________


Asia-wide genome mapping project reveals insights into Asian ancestry and genetic diversity

Date:
    December 4, 2019

Source:
    Nanyang Technological University

Summary:
    After a global genetic comparison, a team of international scientists has discovered that Asia has at least 10 ancestral lineages, whereas northern Europe has a single ancestral lineage.


https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2019/12/191204145813.htm

__________________________________


The Myth of the World's Oldest Culture

http://www.convictcreations.com/aborigines/oldestculture.html


__________________________________

 

Mysterious ‘ghost’ populations had multiple trysts with human ancestors

Feb. 20, 2020

https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2020/02/mysterious-ghost-populations-had-multiple-trysts-human-ancestors


__________________________________

 

Who were the ghost people of Africa? DNA reveals ancient Africans bred with new unknown race of humans just 50,000 years ago

 13 February 2020

    The researchers studied the genetic material of 405 people from West Africa
    They discovered mystery genetic material, which they have termed 'ghost DNA'
    It suggests that humans mixed with an unknown group about 50,000 years ago


https://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-7997861/New-study-shows-ghost-DNA-modern-day-population-west-Africa.html


__________________________________

 
The 'Ghosts' of 2 Unknown Extinct Human Species Have Been Found in Modern DNA

17 JULY 2019

https://www.sciencealert.com/two-unknown-species-of-ancient-extinct-hominids-have-been-identified-in-modern-dna

 

__________________________________

 

Speciation

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speciation


Speciation is the evolutionary process by which populations evolve to become distinct species. The biologist Orator F. Cook coined the term in 1906 for cladogenesis, the splitting of lineages, as opposed to anagenesis, phyletic evolution within lineages. Charles Darwin was the first to describe the role of natural selection in speciation in his 1859 book On the Origin of Species. He also identified sexual selection as a likely mechanism, but found it problematic.


__________________________________

Speciation: The Origin of New Species

2012

https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/speciation-the-origin-of-new-species-26230527/

__________________________________

 
Geography of speciation affects rate of trait divergence in haemulid fishes

2019

https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2018.2852

__________________________________


Quaternary climate changes as speciation drivers in the Amazon floodplains

March 11, 2020

https://advances.sciencemag.org/content/6/11/eaax4718


__________________________________


The Role of MC1R in Speciation & Phylogeny

2013

https://online.ucpress.edu/abt/article/75/9/670/18630/The-Role-of-MC1R-in-Speciation-amp-Phylogeny


__________________________________

Mayr, Dobzhansky, and Bush and the complexities of sympatric speciation in Rhagoletis

2005

https://www.pnas.org/content/102/suppl_1/6573

 

__________________________________


Grimaldi man

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grimaldi_man


Grimaldi man is the name formerly given to two human skeletons of the Upper Paleolithic discovered in Italy in 1901. The remains are now recognized as representing two individuals, and are dated to ca. 26,000 to 22,000 years ago and classified as part of the wider European early modern humans population of the late Aurignacian to early Gravettian.

Because of their early discovery, there is a long history of interpretation of the fossils. Notably, the remains were originally classified as Negroid by Boule and Vallois (1921). This identification has been obsolete since at least the 1960s, but it was controversially revived in the 1980s as part of the Afrocentrism propagated by Cheikh Anta Diop.

Physical characteristics

The Grimaldi skeletons were very different from the finds that had been unearthed in Europe until then. Unlike the robust Neanderthals, the Grimaldi skeletons were slender and gracile, even more so than the Cro-Magnon finds from the same cave system. The Grimaldi people were small. While an adult Cro-Magnon generally stood over 170 cm tall (large males could reach 190 cm), neither of the two skeletons stood over 160 cm. The boy was smallest at a mere 155 cm.

The two skulls had rather tall braincases, unlike the long, low skulls found in Neanderthals and to a lesser extent in Cro-Magnons. The faces had wide nasal openings and lacked the rectangular orbitae and broad complexion so characteristic of Cro-Magnons. These traits, combined with what de Villeneuve interpreted as prognathism led the discoverers to the conclusion that the Grimaldi man had been of a "negroid" type. Some traits did not fit the picture though. The nasal bone had a high nasal bridge, like that of Cro-Magnons and modern Europeans and was very unlike those of more tropical groups. The two rises of the frontal bone in the forehead were separate rather than forming a single median rise, another European trait. The cranial capacity was also quite large for their size.


__________________________________

 

A Comprehensive Analysis of Long Bone Curvature in Neanderthals and Modern Humans Using 3D morphometrics

2008

https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/16757/1/DE_GROOTE_2008_FINAL.pdf

 

__________________________________

 

You'd beat a Neanderthal in a race

February 2011

https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg20927984-700-youd-beat-a-neanderthal-in-a-race/

 

__________________________________


Race and intelligence


https://psychology.wikia.org/wiki/Race_and_intelligence


__________________________________


Are people without wisdom teeth more highly evolved?''


https://science.howstuffworks.com/life/evolution/no-wisdom-teeth.htm



__________________________________


Ancient Mutation Explains Missing Wisdom Teeth

2013

https://www.livescience.com/27529-missing-wisdom-teeth.html


__________________________________

 

Evaluation of ancestry from human skeletal remains: a concise review

Dec 23, 2019

https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/20961790.2019.1697060

 

__________________________________

ASSESSING ANCESTRY THROUGH NONMETRIC TRAITS OF THE SKULL: A TEST OF EDUCATION AND EXPERIENCE

2009

https://digital.library.txstate.edu/bitstream/handle/10877/4052/fulltext.pdf


__________________________________


Determination of Race from the Skeleton through Forensic Anthropological Methods

1995

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26270337/


__________________________________


Skeletal Identification by Race, Gender & Age

https://slideplayer.com/slide/8416470/


__________________________________


Racial variations in different skulls

January 2014

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/288563181_Racial_variations_in_different_skulls


__________________________________


Forensic Identification of “Race”

2006

https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/507187?seq=1


__________________________________

Identification of Race- Forensic Medicine

https://www.slideshare.net/drchetansamra/identification-of-race-forensic-medicine

 
__________________________________


Relationships Between the Skull and the Face for Forensic Craniofacial Superimposition

November 06, 2019

https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-11137-7_3


__________________________________

Secular change in the skull between American blacks and whites

2005

https://digitalcommons.lsu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https://startpage.com/&httpsredir=1&article=1882&context=gradschool_theses

__________________________________

Ancestry estimation using image analysis of orbital shapes from Thai and Japanese skulls

2020

https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/ase/128/1/128_200128/_article/-char/en

__________________________________

 

What your earwax says about your ancestry

February 24, 2014

https://www.sciencenews.org/blog/gory-details/what-your-earwax-says-about-your-ancestry


__________________________________


Digging For Gold: Study Says Your Race Determines Your Earwax Scent

2014

https://www.npr.org/sections/codeswitch/2014/03/20/283101999/digging-for-gold-study-says-your-race-determines-your-earwax-scent


__________________________________


Racial Differences in Cerumen Type and Consistency


April 14, 2011


https://hearinghealthmatters.org/hearinginternational/2011/racial-differences-in-cerumen-type-and-consistency/

 _____________________________________

 

_____________________________________

__________________________________

__________________________________

__________________________________


Section 3: Reaction Time

__________________________________

__________________________________

__________________________________

_____________________________________

_____________________________________

Disease Relevance of Reaction Time

https://www.wikigenes.org/e/mesh/e/643.html


__________________________________


Reaction time, inhibition, working memory and ‘delay aversion’ performance: genetic influences and their interpretation

2006

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3770933/

 

__________________________________

Reaction time and sustained attention in schizophrenia and its genetic predisposition

2007

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0920996407002411

 

__________________________________



Genetic factors of reaction time performance: DRD4 7-repeat allele associated with slower responses

2010

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20807239/

Abstract

Twin studies indicate substantial inherited components in cognitive abilities. One of the most extensively studied candidate genes of cognitive functioning is the dopamine D4 receptor gene (DRD4), which has been suggested to be related to attentional disorders. Based on reaction time data of 245 Caucasians participating in different cognitive tasks, slower responses characterized the group with the 7-repeat allele. This effect was present in both sexes and was not because of fatigue. To our knowledge, this is the first report on significant association (P = 0.0001) between the DRD4 variable number of tandem repeat (VNTR) polymorphism and response latencies in a non-clinical adult sample. Other studied dopaminergic polymorphisms did not show an association with reaction time. These results illustrate that speed-of-performance measures derived from multiple reaction time tasks using standardization procedures could be promising tools to detect unique genetic effects in the background of cognitive abilities.

__________________________________


Genetic analysis of reaction time variability: room for improvement?

2012

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22975296/


__________________________________



Ex-Gaussian, Frequency and Reward Analyses Reveal Specificity of Reaction Time Fluctuations to ADHD and Not Autism Traits

2019

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30027330/


__________________________________

 

Cognitive performance and BMI in childhood: Shared genetic influences between reaction time but not response inhibition

 

2014

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/oby.20862

 

__________________________________



Virtual Hand Feedback Reduces Reaction Time in an Interactive Finger Reaching Task

2016

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4856322/


__________________________________



Differences Between Human Eye and Camera

https://healthfully.com/260262-differences-between-human-eye-and-camera.html



__________________________________


INCIDENCE OF NORMAL PINEAL GLAND CALCIFICATION IN SKULL ROENTGENOGRAMS OF BLACK AND WHITE AMERICANS

1974

https://www.ajronline.org/doi/10.2214/ajr.122.3.503


__________________________________




AFRICAN AMERICANS HAVE A GREATER SENSITIVITY TO ALPHA1-ADRENOCEPTOR-MEDIATED VENOCONSTRICTION COMPARED TO CAUCASIANS


2013

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3627527/

Abstract

African Americans have increased hemodynamic responses to both physiologic and pharmacologic adrenergic stimulation compared to Caucasians, and this may contribute to the greater prevalence of hypertension in this ethnic group. A small study suggested enhanced α₁-adrenoreceptor-mediated arterial vasoconstriction in the forearm vasculature of African Americans compared to Caucasians, but it is unknown whether this reflects a generalized vascular phenomenon. The objective of this study was to examine the hypothesis that there are ethnic differences in venous α₁-adrenoreceptor responsiveness. Using a linear variable differential transformer, we measured local dorsal hand vein responses to increasing doses of the selective α₁-adrenoreceptor agonist, phenylephrine, in 106 subjects (64 Caucasians and 42 African Americans). There was wide interindividual variability in responses to phenylephrine. The dose that produced 50% of maximal constriction (ED₅₀) ranged from 11 to 5442 ng/min, and maximal venoconstriction (E_max) ranged from 13.5% to 100%. African Americans (geometric mean ED₅₀=172 ng/min; 95% CI, 115 to 256 ng/min) were more sensitive to phenylephrine than Caucasians (310 ng/min; 95% CI, 222 to 434 ng/min; unadjusted P=0.026; adjusted P=0.003). Median E_max was slightly higher in African Americans (89%; IQR, 82% to 98%) compared to Caucasians (85%; IQR, 75% to 95%; P=0.07). Taken together with previous findings in arterial vessels, our results suggest a generalized increased sensitivity to α₁-adrenoreceptor-mediated vasoconstriction in African Americans. Increased vascular α-adrenoreceptor sensitivity could predispose to hypertension, and future studies addressing this mechanism’s contribution to ethnic differences in the prevalence of hypertension will be of interest.

__________________________________

Whites have a More Robust Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis Response to a Psychological Stressor than Blacks


2007

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2253947/


Summary

Objective

Differences in the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis response to stress may confer differences in susceptibility to a variety of diseases. We hypothesized that whites would differ from blacks in HPA axis response to a psychological stressor.

Design

Healthy subjects aged 18–30 were recruited from Baltimore, Maryland. At initial assessment, they completed psychometric tests measuring anxiety, mood, and personality. Subjects then participated in the Trier Social Stress Test (TSST), which consisted of 10 min of public speaking and mental arithmetic exercises. Subjective anxiety was measured immediately pre- and post-TSST. Race effects on cortisol, adrenocorticotrophin (ACTH), and prolactin responses to the TSST were analyzed by GEE longitudinal analysis methods. The analysis controlled for gender, baseline hormone levels, socioeconomic factors, anxiety, mood, and dimensions of personality.

Results

Ninety-eight subjects participated in the TSST. Whites had 36% greater relative mean cortisol response than blacks (95% CI: 10%–67%, P = 0.004). Whites had significantly higher mean ACTH compared to blacks at 25 min after the start of the TSST, (35%, 95% CI: 16%–58% greater, P < 0.001). There was no difference in prolactin response. Of note, whites and blacks did not differ in subjective anxiety response to the TSST.

Conclusions

In sum, we found that whites have a more robust HPA axis response to the TSST compared with blacks, even after controlling for several socioeconomic and psychological factors. In contrast, we observed no difference in prolactin response. There were no differences in subjective response to the TSST to explain the difference in HPA axis response. Further study is indicated to explain this finding and to test whether it can be extrapolated to other forms of stress.

__________________________________

The Promise of Adult Stem Cells in Disease Management, Anti-Aging, and Life Extension

 

 Nov 17, 2013


http://articles.mercola.com/sites/articles/archive/2013/11/17/adult-stem-cells-therapy.aspx

__________________________________

Adrenochrome


https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adrenochrome


Adrenochrome is a chemical compound with the molecular formula C9H9NO3 produced by the oxidation of adrenaline (epinephrine). The derivative carbazochrome is a hemostatic medication. Despite a similarity in chemical names, it is unrelated to chrome or chromium.


Legal status

Adrenochrome is unscheduled by the Controlled Substances Act in the United States. It is not an approved drug product by the Food and Drug Administration, and if produced as a dietary supplement it must comply with good manufacturing practice.



__________________________________

Racial/ethnic differences in experimental pain sensitivity and associated factors – Cardiovascular responsiveness and psychological status

April 18, 2019

https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0215534


__________________________________

Racial differences in sacral structure important in caudal anesthesia

Jan 1 1979

https://asu.pure.elsevier.com/en/publications/racial-differences-in-sacral-structure-important-in-caudal-anesth

 

__________________________________

Racial differences in experimental pain sensitivity and conditioned pain modulation: a study of Chinese and Indians

2019


Background: Substantial literature has demonstrated racial differences in pain perception and endogenous pain modulation is proposed to be a mechanism for the racial differences. Although Indians in Singapore reported higher pain severity than Chinese, the only study on racial difference in experimental pain response in Singapore did not find any difference between the two racial groups.

Purpose: The aim of this study was to investigate pain sensitivity and conditioned pain modulation in Chinese and Indians in Singapore.

Conclusion: These findings of racial disparities in pain tolerance and endogenous pain inhibition could possibly contribute to the higher pain severity in Indians.


https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6643485/

 

__________________________________

Pain amongst ethnic minority groups of South Asian origin in the United Kingdom: a review

1999

https://academic.oup.com/rheumatology/article/38/12/1184/1783652


Consultation behaviour

A consistent finding in the literature is that adult Asians attend general practices more frequently compared with the European population. A large-scale community survey comparing aspects of illness behaviour in Asian-born and British-born residents in London, UK, found that Asian men were more than twice as likely to consult their general practitioner (GP) in the previous 2 weeks, irrespective of self-assessment of health or presence of illness/disability. Balarajan et al. [6] examined the levels of GP consultations among the different ethnic groups resident in Britain, and noted a 2-fold excess of consultations for Pakistani men aged 16–44 yr in comparison with European men, with higher rates also evident for Pakistani women aged 16–44 yr relative to European women. A further study of a group general practice in London found a marked increase in the standardized consultation ratio for Asians. Such differences in health-seeking behaviour are not just evident in adults of the Asian population—children and young people from South Asian ethnic groups have also been found to be more likely to consult a GP compared with European children and children of other ethnic groups. However, it is not clear whether such findings reflect true differences in morbidity or differing perceptions of illness leading to greater utilization of health care.


__________________________________

The Journal of Pain


https://www.jpain.org/article/S1526-5900(17)30325-5/pdf



(440) The effects of race and sex on experimental sleep disruption-induced hyperalgesia

(441) Differences in the experience and managementof chronic pain across first, second, and third generation Mexican Americans: Results from NHANES 1999-2004

(442) Racial/ethnic differences in experimental painsensitivity and associated factors – cardiovascular responsiveness and psychological status

(443) Racial Differences in Appraisal of Physical Activityamong Community-Dwelling Adults with Chronic Low Back Pain


__________________________________

Pain tolerance: differences according to age, sex and race

1972

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/4644663/


__________________________________

Tame the pain: How cyclists can increase pain tolerance

2019

https://blog.tacx.com/tame-the-pain-how-cyclists-can-increase-pain-tolerance/

 

__________________________________



PSYCHOLOGY, PSYCHIATRY & BRAIN NEUROSCIENCE SECTION


2012

Review Article


A Quantitative Review of Ethnic GroupDifferences in Experimental Pain Response:Do Biology, Psychology, and Culture Matter?

https://watermark.silverchair.com/13-4-522.pdf?token=AQECAHi208BE49Ooan9kkhW_Ercy7Dm3ZL_9Cf3qfKAc485ysgAAAsUwggLBBgkqhkiG9w0BBwagggKyMIICrgIBADCCAqcGCSqGSIb3DQEHATAeBglghkgBZQMEAS4wEQQMQNHE2CQJt7vmN2LfAgEQgIICeBdO_gcwzDx_rysfytreg9AWnGFC9WfRvMfoX0swJvW1VRsVb-GNuiLicV8X7QlRGsS3DT1egtG4WmlNXcAJEsYed9RqU5TDvuBJ6JDmxtBm4RYIvwu7k6aghBBXnyHAZOalAK8-omFyC97NGqEVMtmh3MlkblCVuUvZL2rSjl4Aid4-orvTU9o3KFpsAgZhnV63Rhqx_qPeIcNFhdgI9uP15BdZvdjSzhoEaimhTEvZEVIRoelOYolNMK8ALcWy_P24V8ZUkMa_y3QXCNnGY2xPHYhn0qy_857JDNUF6_QucXu6whfeSuBytd1DhTFQ8YoESb7j5FmVtPOFYMO-dkQIfRRHxdDSMUw_fQtFln3k0mwap7wbh3JzzxPJAvjG-LtSpYilU6CjGUCfF79fUmEXF94aHhHyhl92ZbMtWh1IwMZTu8pyR59FLe4hpAbtZ-MoHh-J2chOU6-EMv8G4bkqfMvIoSXZWEMzcl60qa12QbuTS-bMQK7ejXiHbR3KwofehNSMlg1jhF583CvSQpEiWpI3vyRrKze3YJF_zqYucapohV035HDoWt4cwGbT1ZcPDKyEu6oiYMNNqgjy26O75XQxfC3g6nrCIEB2rkzR8YbnROdDfs1LdekYTk5P2yRO5VcElTQYSi5scI_h7U0LgTomrXZOrlN6p-tyKboH5AfIX4IUH-4WZEkoquNuQ5DcKN_AeN69KQnHTgJK0I0CXhIx8gNHLEHoHwI4wvp0FrQDHmZ6R6o-6Fmox13fUuIbXzl8DGt4HR1FipnrcE5wvEYbUfKHAMEcHwIO59q0ue7_7YHuAKn-NjIO-y2NcYJAGZEHfo2i



__________________________________

 

 Race Differences in Age-Trends of Autonomic Nervous System Functioning

June 18, 2013

https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0898264313491427?journalCode=jaha


__________________________________

Pharmacogenetics of efavirenz discontinuation for reported central nervous system symptoms appears to differ by race.

2016

https://www.vumc.org/hivclinicaltrials/publication/pharmacogenetics-efavirenz-discontinuation-reported-central-nervous-system-symptoms

__________________________________

Variation of nerve fibre layer thickness measurements with age and ethnicity by scanning laser polarimetry

https://bjo.bmj.com/content/81/5/350


__________________________________


The Autonomic Nervous System and Hypertension: Ethnic Differences and Psychosocial Factors

2019

https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11886-019-1100-5


__________________________________

Job Strain, Ethnicity, and Sympathetic Nervous System Activity

Nov 8, 2004

https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/10.1161/01.hyp.0000148499.54730.0d

 

__________________________________

Race Effect on Nerve Conduction Studies: A Comparison Between 50 Blacks and 50 Whites

1999

https://www.archives-pmr.org/article/S0003-9993(99)90195-8/pdf

 
__________________________________

Relationship between sonographically measured median nerve cross-sectional area and presence of peripheral neuropathy in diabetic subjects

2019

https://www.wjgnet.com/1948-9358/full/v10/i1/47.htm



__________________________________

Racial differences in primary central nervous system lymphoma incidence and survival rates

2009

https://academic.oup.com/neuro-oncology/article/11/3/318/1037659


__________________________________


Age, gender, and racial differences in incidence and survival in primary CNS lymphoma

2011

https://www.nature.com/articles/bjc2011357


__________________________________

Racial differences in primary central nervous system lymphoma incidence and survival rates

2009

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2718976/

 

__________________________________

 

 From Muscles to Nerves: Gender, “Race” and the Body at Work in France 1919–1939

December 1999

https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/international-review-of-social-history/article/from-muscles-to-nerves-gender-race-and-the-body-at-work-in-france-19191939/BC0E8A81E05287F33AB89C6981B8AC26

 

__________________________________


Facial pain. I. A prospective survey of 1052 patients with a view of: definition, delimitation, classification, general data, genetic factors, and previous diseases

1990

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2077847/



__________________________________


Differences in Pain Coping Between Black and White Americans: A Meta-Analysis

2016

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26804583/


__________________________________


Pain-related anxiety promotes pronociceptive processes in Native Americans: bootstrapped mediation analyses from the Oklahoma Study of Native American Pain Risk

2020

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32072102/

 Abstract

Introduction: Evidence suggests Native Americans (NAs) experience higher rates of chronic pain than the general US population, but the mechanisms contributing to this disparity are poorly understood. Recently, we conducted a study of healthy, pain-free NAs (n = 155), and non-Hispanic whites (NHWs, n = 150) to address this issue and found little evidence that NAs and NHWs differ in pain processing (assessed from multiple quantitative sensory tests). However, NAs reported higher levels of pain-related anxiety during many of the tasks.


__________________________________


Sex-specific impact of early-life adversity on chronic pain: a large population-based study in Japan

2017

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28243147/


__________________________________


Ethnic differences in pain and pain management

2012


https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3654683/



Clinical pain/laboratory pain studies

Ethnic differences in pain perception have been documented in a variety of clinical pain conditions, generally indicating that, for a given condition that is characterized by persistent pain complaints, African–Americans report greater pain and suffering when compared with whites. For example, African–Americans report greater pain in conditions such as glaucoma, AIDS, migraine headache, jaw pain, postoperative pain, myofascial pain, angina pectoris, joint pain, non-specific daily pain and arthritis, compared with whites (see [3,4] for review). Greater pain-related symptoms and disability in African–American patients relative to white patients have also been reported in multidisciplinary pain centers and some evidence suggests that disparities between these groups appear to be independent of other demographic factors such as age, sex, socioeconomic status, education, employment, marital status and other potential confounders, such as medical comorbidities and disease duration. In a recent review of ethnic differences in arthritis, Bolen and colleagues found that arthritis-attributable activity, work limitation and severe joint pain were higher for non-Hispanic blacks, Hispanics and ‘multiracial’ or ‘other’ participants with arthritis when compared with their non-Hispanic white counterparts. A recent review by Jimenez et al., focusing on American Indians, Alaska Natives and Aboriginal people of Canada, found that American Indians and Alaska Natives had a higher prevalence of pain symptoms and painful conditions when compared with the general US population. Outside the USA, ethnic differences in pain reporting are also widely documented. For example, in a national survey of Singaporean older adults, participants of Malay descent had lower pain severity compared with Chinese participants, and Indian participants reported greater pain severity when compared with both Malay and Chinese participants. In a cross-continental study, Zhu and colleagues recruited women in both Australia and China to examine differences in menstrual pain and found that Australian women rated menstrual pain as more intense, with the duration of pain lasting 36% longer when compared with Chinese women. In a survey study conducted in Australia with back pain respondents, Italian-born men were more likely to report back pain as frequent, severe and chronic, limiting their behavior and reported having more painful sites when compared with Australian-born men, despite no difference in the prevalence of back pain between the groups. In a Swedish study, pain in the lower back, neck, shoulders, elbows and hands was more frequent among Sami (northern Scandinavian indigenous) men and women compared with the general Swedish population; however, this may be owing to occupational differences. In a German study, the prevalence of temporomandibular disorders (TMD), according to the Research Diagnostic Criteria for TMD (RDC/TMD), was examined in adolescent German and Chinese young women, the authors found that after controlling for relevant factors, the prevalence of RDC/TMD pain diagnoses were increased in Chinese participants as compared with German participants.


__________________________________


DO BELIEFS ABOUT RACE DIFFERENCES IN PAIN CONTRIBUTE TO ACTUAL RACE DIFFERENCES IN EXPERIMENTAL PAIN RESPONSE?

17.01.2019

https://hammer.figshare.com/articles/DO_BELIEFS_ABOUT_RACE_DIFFERENCES_IN_PAIN_CONTRIBUTE_TO_ACTUAL_RACE_DIFFERENCES_IN_EXPERIMENTAL_PAIN_RESPONSE_/7408823



__________________________________


Low Tolerance for Pain? The Reason May Be In Your Genes

2014

https://www.aan.com/PressRoom/Home/PressRelease/1269

 
__________________________________

 

Temporomandibular Joint and Muscle Disorder (TMJMD) - type pain and Co-morbid Pains in a National US Sample

2013

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3807573/

Abstract

Aims

To compare prevalences of self-reported comorbid headaches, neck, back, and joint pains in respondents with temporomandibular joint and muscle disorder (TMJMD)-type pain in the 2000–2005 US National Health Interview Survey (NHIS), and to analyze these self-reported pains by gender and age for Non-Hispanic (NH) Whites (Caucasians), Hispanics and NH Blacks (African Americans).
Methods

Data from the 2000–2005 NHIS included information on gender, age, race, ethnicity, education, different common types of pain (specifically: TMJMD-type, severe headache/migraine, neck, and low back pains), changes in health status; and health care utilization. Estimates and test statistics (i.e. Pearson correlations, regressions and logistic models) were conducted using SAS survey analysis and SUDAAN software that take into account the complex sample design.
Results

A total of 189,977 people: 52% female and 48% males; 73% NH Whites, 12% Hispanic, 11% NH Blacks and 4% “Other” were included. A total of 4.6% reported TMJMD-type pain and only 0.77% overall reported it without any comorbid headache/migraine, neck, or low back pains; also 59% of the TMJMD-type pain (N = 8,964) reported ≥two comorbid pain. Females reported more comorbid pain than males (odds ratio (OR) = 1.41, p <0.001), Hispanic and NH Blacks reported more than NH Whites (OR = 1.56, p <0.001; OR = 1.38, p <0.001, respectively). In addition, 53% of those with TMJMD-type pain had severe headache/migraines; 54% had neck pain, 64% low back pain and 62% joint pain. Differences in gender, race by age patterns were detected. For females, headache/migraine pain with TMJMD-type pain peaked around age 40 and decreased thereafter regardless of race/ethnicity. Neck pain continued to increase up to about age 60, with higher prevalence for Hispanic women at younger ages, and more pronounced in males, being the highest in the non-Whites. Low back pain was higher in Black and Hispanic females across the age span and higher among non-White males after age 60. Joint pain demonstrated similar patterns by race/ethnicity, which higher rates for Black females, and increased with age regardless of gender.

 

__________________________________




Pain tolerance

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pain_tolerance

Not to be confused with Pain threshold.

Pain tolerance is the maximum level of pain that a person is able to tolerate. Pain tolerance is distinct from pain threshold (the point at which pain begins to be felt). The perception of pain that goes in to pain tolerance has two major components. First is the biological component—the headache or skin prickling that activates pain receptors. Second is the brain’s perception of pain—how much focus is spent paying attention to or ignoring the pain. The brain’s perception of pain is a response to signals from pain receptors that sensed the pain in the first place.
Contents

    1 Factors
        1.1 Sex
        1.2 Passive or active support
        1.3 Age
        1.4 Ethnicity
        1.5 Psychological factors
        1.6 Hand dominancy, or handedness
        1.7 Neonatal injury
        1.8 Association and disassociation
    2 Conditioning
    3 See also
    4 References


Ethnicity

In laboratory studies black people have shown a higher pain tolerance in comparison to white people. However, other studies have shown that white people possess higher pain tolerance when compared to African American and Hispanic minorities. It is inconclusive whether pain tolerance differs by ethnicity.

Hand dominancy, or handedness

One way to measure pain is to have participants place their hand in ice cold water. Their pain tolerance can then be measured based on how long they are able to keep their hand submerged before taking it out. One study used this technique to compare pain tolerance in dominant and non-dominant hands. One finding was that dominant hands showed a higher pain tolerance than non-dominant hands. Right-handers could withstand pain longer in their right hand than their left hand while the opposite was true for left-handers.

Neonatal injury

Nociceptive pathways are pathways in the brain that send and receive pain signals and are responsible for how we perceive pain. They develop before a baby is born and continue to develop during the critical period of development. It was once thought that because infants’ nociceptive pathways in the brain were still developing, they could not feel pain. However, infants can feel pain and infant surgeries providing early pain experiences can alter the brain’s tolerance for pain later so by increasing number of A fibers and C fibers—two types of pain receptors—located in the area where injury occurred and by reducing pain tolerance in the areas where incision has occurred. This reduction in pain tolerance is seen in male rats even when they are adolescents. In those rats, the area of their brain where an incision was made as an infant remains hypersensitive to pain thereafter. This effect was not seen as prominently in female rats.


__________________________________

 

Racial differences in microRNA and gene expression in hypertensive women

October 25, 2016

https://www.nature.com/articles/srep35815

 

__________________________________



Some medical students still think black patients feel less pain than whites (Debated)

2016

https://www.statnews.com/2016/04/04/medical-students-beliefs-race-pain/



__________________________________


Racial/Ethnic Disparities in the Assessment and Treatment of Pain

2014

https://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/releases/amp-a0035204.pdf


__________________________________


Sex and race or ethnicity disparities in opioid prescriptions for dental diagnoses among patients receiving Medicaid

2018

https://jada.ada.org/pb/assets/raw/Health%20Advance/journals/adaj/06_ADAJ1061.pdf

 

__________________________________


How we fail black patients in pain

January 6, 2020


https://www.aamc.org/news-insights/how-we-fail-black-patients-pain



__________________________________



Reaction Times and IQ Tests

2009

https://scienceblogs.com/gregladen/2009/12/27/reaction-times-and-iq-tests


__________________________________


Racial differences in reaction time

2015

https://pumpkinperson.com/2015/06/11/racial-differences-in-reaction-time/


__________________________________


Reaction time, race, and racism

Abstract

The claim (Jensen, 1975) that blacks are slower than whites in choice (but not simple) reaction time is examined. It is false. The claim (Jensen, 1985) that Muhammad Ali was shown to have a “very average” reaction time is examined. It is false. The claim (Vernon & Jensen, 1984) that an unpublished technical report showed blacks to be inferior to whites on a relatively content-free mental processing task is examined. It is false. Suggestions are made concerning relevant questions that might be addressed by students of race differences in intelligence.


https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/0160289687900134

 

__________________________________


Reaction Time, Movement Time, and Intelligence


http://e.guigon.free.fr/rsc/article/JensenMunro79.pdf


__________________________________


Reaction times and intelligence: a comparison of Japanese and British children

1991

https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-biosocial-science/article/reaction-times-and-intelligence-a-comparison-of-japanese-and-british-children/34B4C89BCA96664A5BCD298AA7EDC27E


__________________________________

Identification  of  Kinetics  of  Direct  Esterification  Reactions  for PET  Synthesis  Based  on  a  Genetic  Algorithm

2001

https://www.cheric.org/PDF/KJChE/KC18/KC18-4-0432.pdf


__________________________________

On the Implications of a Sex Difference in the Reaction Times of Sprinters at the Beijing Olympics

2011

https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0026141


__________________________________


Genetic Variation of  the MAO B Gene is Related to Shorter Reaction Times in Alcohol Dependent Patients

2015

https://www.jscimedcentral.com/Addiction/addiction-3-1014.pdf


__________________________________


Reaction Time and Speed of Movement in Males and Females of Various Ages

2013

https://shapeamerica.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10671188.1963.10613242?journalCode=urqe17

__________________________________

Cognitive performance and BMI in childhood: Shared genetic influences between reaction time but not response inhibition

November 2014

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/oby.20862


__________________________________

 

THIRTY YEARS OF RESEARCH ON RACE DIFFERENCES IN COGNITIVE ABILITY

2005

https://www1.udel.edu/educ/gottfredson/30years/Rushton-Jensen30years.pdf

 

__________________________________


What Part of the Brain Controls Emotions?

https://www.healthline.com/health/what-part-of-the-brain-controls-emotions


__________________________________



Progression of somatic CTG repeat length heterogeneity in the blood cells of myotonic dystrophy patients

1998

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9425239/



__________________________________


More vitamin D may improve memory but too much may slow reaction time

March 14, 2019

https://medicalxpress.com/news/2019-03-vitamin-d-memory-reaction.html


__________________________________

Your brain’s reaction time peaks at age 24, study finds

2014

https://www.pbs.org/newshour/science/brains-reaction-time-peaks-age-24-study-finds


__________________________________


As We Age, Loss of Brain Connections Slows Our Reaction Time

Jun 2019

https://psychcentral.com/news/2018/09/13/as-we-age-loss-of-brain-connections-slows-our-reaction-time/18031.html


__________________________________


Does race affect reaction time to visual and auditory stimuli?

2017

https://www.wyzant.com/resources/answers/272067/does_race_affect_reaction_time_to_visual_and_auditory_stimuli

 

__________________________________


Comparison between Auditory and Visual Simple Reaction Times

2010

https://file.scirp.org/pdf/NM20100100001_38982209.pdf


__________________________________


Brain response study upends thinking about why practice speeds up motor reaction times

2018

https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2018/08/180816105542.htm


__________________________________


New study finds link between slow reaction time and early death

2014

A new study, published in the journal PLOS ONE, has found that adults who have slow reaction times have a higher risk of an early death.

https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/271911

__________________________________


How much of aim is genetic?

https://www.reddit.com/r/FortniteCompetitive/comments/afzcf0/how_much_of_aim_is_genetic/


__________________________________


Video games speed up reaction time

2010

https://www.futurity.org/video-games-speed-up-reaction-time/


__________________________________

Why are white people considered the superior race?

Whites are considered the dominant race because, no offense, they kinda are. Whites descended from a group of albino humans and eventually evolved to the smartest and strongest race. Anyone who disagrees with this is ignorant of history and science. If whites weren't dominant then how did we so easily conquer the African race. (Food was more scarce in Europe, so don't use that as an excuse for Blacks being less advanced). Whites are strong because the cold weather enhanced muscle and upper body strength. Here is white nations that have changed the course of history and conquered the world: Germany, England, Spain, France, Portugal, the United States, the Soviet Union, Italy, and lots more. This was not racist its just truth.

https://answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20061107204349AAOyEbV


__________________________________

 

Can your ethnicity affect your weather tolerance?

https://science.howstuffworks.com/science-vs-myth/everyday-myths/can-ethnicity-affect-weather-tolerance.htm


__________________________________


When White Folks Catch a Cold, Black Folks Get Pneumonia

January 28, 2015

https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/race/news/2015/01/28/105551/when-whites-folks-catch-a-cold-black-folks-get-pneumonia/

 

__________________________________



The Five Human Races

https://chestofbooks.com/reference/A-Library-Of-Wonders-And-Curiosities/The-Five-Human-Races.html


__________________________________



Neanderthal DNA contributes to genetic diversity, bringing more understanding to human evolution

August 3, 2020

https://phys.org/news/2020-08-neanderthal-dna-contributes-genetic-diversity.html


__________________________________

 

Caveman vs. Modern Human: Who Would Win Olympic Gold?

2008

https://www.livescience.com/2747-caveman-modern-human-win-olympic-gold.html

Olympic athletes may benefit from today's sports drinks and high-tech training, but their gymnastics or wrestling performance probably pales in comparison to what early human ancestors could have pulled off.

That's because we Homo sapiens have followed an evolutionary track away from sheer body strength and toward the lean, mean endurance qualities of a long-distance runner.

"The chimp-like ancestor was like a power athlete," said Dan Lieberman, a biological anthropologist at Harvard University. "Much stronger and faster than humans, but they had no endurance."

Neanderthals, who coexisted with Homo sapiens until roughly 20,000 years ago, may have also posed a challenge to modern humans in terms of power. However, many experts agree that early Homo sapiens were not much different from the burly Neanderthals — the biggest evolutionary change had already taken place roughly 2 million years ago when human ancestors became serious runners.

So in a hypothetical competition, if you wanted to bet on modern Olympic athletes besting earlier humans, choose the endurance events such as the triathalon or soccer. Otherwise the power sports would belong to human ancestors, and for good reason.

The power athletes

For instance, before 2 million years ago, the earliest human ancestors such as Australopithecus afarensis (represented in part by the famed "Lucy" fossil) had just come down from the trees in an evolutionary sense. Their bodies still reflected chimp features such as longer arms and a stronger upper body built for fighting and swinging through the trees.

"A big male chimp weighs about 50 kilos [110 pounds], yet could easily rip the arm off someone," Lieberman noted. "You would never want to arm wrestle a chimpanzee."

The build of Australopithecus unsurprisingly continued the ape trend toward male-male physical competition, said David Carrier, a biologist at the University of Utah. The smaller human ancestor would have had an advantage in fighting sports such as wrestling, especially if the size advantage of modern humans was removed.

The same physical advantages would have extended to other Olympic sports as well.

"The Australopiths would really excel at gymnastics and diving because of the greater upper body strength, longer arms," Carrier told LiveScience. "Their short stature and low body mass would also have greatly increased their ability to do flips and spins because of the low rotational inertia of their body."

Yet when it came to running, Australopithecus found itself in an awkward position of having just learned to walk comfortably on two legs.

"Australopithecus represented a biped on the ground with much more climbing ability and without striding locomotion," said Ian Tattersall, anthropologist and curator for the American Museum of Natural History in New York City. "Running would have been possible, but probably not as efficient."

The most dangerous game

The ability to run for long distances changed human athleticism — as well as history — and came around the 2-million year mark, allowing human ancestors such as Homo erectus to hunt seriously for the first time.

Early hunters only had sharpened wooden sticks and clubs, which meant that success in catching and killing prey relied on the difference between human marathon running and animal sprinting.

"Most human sports that we value the most (with exception of power sports) involve this incredible ability to run or do aerobic capacity," Lieberman said. "That's really rare. Very few animals adapted for endurance."

Lions can run about twice as fast as the fastest Olympic sprinters over short distances to catch their prey. Early humans relied instead upon tiring their prey by running them down to exhaustion, combining a springy step with sweat glands all over the body that prevented overheating.

Modern Olympic marathoners could take full advantage of their running to beat early human ancestors such as Australopithecus in a long-distance race. Even contemporary people who still rely on persistence hunting without long-range weapons can run with equal ease, such as the Tarahumara of northern Mexico.

"Kids on lunch break will go run ten miles," Lieberman noted. "The Tarahumara used to run deer down to exhaustion."




__________________________________

How Pain Tolerance Affects Running Performance

2013

https://www.podiumrunner.com/training/a-painful-thought-pain-tolerance-affects-running-performance/

__________________________________


Pain Perception in Latino vs. Caucasian and Male vs. Female Patients: Is There Really a Difference?

2017

https://westjem.com/original-research/pain-perception-in-latino-vs-caucasian-and-male-vs-female-patients-is-there-really-a-difference.html

__________________________________


Opioid Requirements and Responses in Asians

1997

https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/0310057X9702500613


__________________________________

 

 Different pain responses to chronic and acute pain in various ethnic/racial groups

September 22, 2017

https://www.futuremedicine.com/doi/10.2217/pmt-2017-0056

 

__________________________________


Neural and sociocultural mediators of ethnic differences in pain

2020

https://www.nature.com/articles/s41562-020-0819-8?proof=t

Abstract

Understanding ethnic differences in pain is important for addressing disparities in pain care. A common belief is that African Americans are hyposensitive to pain compared to Whites, but African Americans show increased pain sensitivity in clinical and laboratory settings. The neurobiological mechanisms underlying these differences are unknown. We studied an ethnicity- and gender-balanced sample of African Americans, Hispanics and non-Hispanic Whites using functional magnetic resonance imaging during thermal pain. Higher pain report in African Americans was mediated by discrimination and increased frontostriatal circuit activations associated with pain rating, discrimination, experimenter trust and extranociceptive aspects of pain elsewhere. In contrast, the neurologic pain signature, a neuromarker sensitive and specific to nociceptive pain, mediated painful heat effects on pain report largely similarly in African American and other groups. Findings identify a brain basis for higher pain in African Americans related to interpersonal context and extranociceptive central pain mechanisms and suggest that nociceptive pain processing may be similar across ethnicities.

__________________________________

Why Are Chimpanzees Stronger Than Humans?

2013

Chimps are far stronger than we are - but why?

https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/why-are-chimpanzees-stronger-than-humans-1379994/

 

__________________________________

When Scientists Studied Infants’ Skeletons, They Discovered Ancient Secrets Locked Inside Their DNA


https://maternityweek.com/anthropology-and-history/ancient-history/scientists-studied-two-infant-skeletons-discovered-truth-america/?l=a&l=a&utm_medium=CPC&utm_content=%255BPhotos%255D+New+DNA+discovery+transforms+Native+American+history&utm_source=Outbrain-AdRizer&utm_campaign=271119&utm_term=CNN+%2528Turner+U.S.%2529_-_CNN_-_0048938c4af9641f2e04565be89ece5954_-_009ccab152daff19c2f26990be7be1164b&dicbo=v1-1a27b8407ddd9b34ce39dfa72c716e6c-00d93e7cd56c22a098c9b709bf9ba5f263-me4tayjrgy3dmljqgnsdgljumjrdsllcmrsgcljtgnrwgndbgvsggzjsmu



__________________________________

 

 45,000-Year-Old Human Remains Found in Bulgarian Cave

May 12, 2020

A tooth and six bone fragments are the oldest confirmed Homo sapiens fossils in Europe.

https://www.the-scientist.com/news-opinion/45-000-year-old-human-remains-found-in-bulgarian-cave-67526

 

__________________________________

Scientists Studied Two Infant Skeleton Discovered - America


https://maternityweek.com/anthropology-and-history/ancient-history/scientists-studied-two-infant-skeletons-discovered-truth-america/24/?l=a&l=a&utm_medium=CPC&utm_content=%255BPhotos%255D+New+DNA+discovery+transforms+Native+American+history&utm_source=Outbrain-AdRizer&utm_campaign=271119&utm_term=CNN+%2528Turner+U.S.%2529_-_CNN_-_0048938c4af9641f2e04565be89ece5954_-_009ccab152daff19c2f26990be7be1164b&dicbo=v1-1a27b8407ddd9b34ce39dfa72c716e6c-00d93e7cd56c22a098c9b709bf9ba5f263-me4tayjrgy3dmljqgnsdgljumjrdsllcmrsgcljtgnrwgndbgvsggzjsmu

So those first human journeys into Alaska from Siberia likely happened more than 30,000 years ago. It seems, too, that those brave travelers may have stayed put on this land bridge for a long time. Then, roughly 15,000 years ago, the glaciers covering North America began to disintegrate. And it’s believed that this was the cue for humans to leave Beringia, eventually cross North America and spread to the south.

The hypothesis on the successive waves of migration is supported by most contemporary Native Americans, who belong to five distinct genetic bands that specialists call A, B, C, D and X. But what’s known as the standstill theory says that this diversity wasn’t actually the result of different groups arriving from Siberia. Instead, it came from Beringia, where one wave of people stopped long enough to develop a diverse gene pool before migrating through the Americas.

Of course, these pathways of human migration are complex, and scientists don’t necessarily have all the answers. While some believe that humans stopped off at Beringia for a long period, others think that successive waves of migrants crossed the land bridge and traveled southwards. Unfortunately, though, evidence is hard to come by, as Beringia is now under the sea.



__________________________________




Honorary Aryan

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honorary_Aryan


Honorary Aryan (German: Ehrenarier) was an expression used in Nazi Germany to describe the unofficial status of persons, including Mischlinge, who were not recognized as belonging to the Aryan race, according to Nazi standards, but informally considered to be part of it.

The prevalent explanation as to why the status of "honorary Aryan" was bestowed by the Nazis upon other non-Nordic – or even less exclusively, non-Indo-Iranian/European peoples – is that the services of those peoples were deemed valuable to the German economy or war effort, or simply for other purely political or propaganda reasons.[citation needed]

In the Independent State of Croatia, a Nazi client country, this term was used by Ante Pavelić to protect from persecution some Jews who had been useful to the state.


Notable inclusions

    Hitler declared that the Japanese were Honorary Aryans.

    Hitler declared that the Finns, Hungarian and Turks were Aryans.

    Amin al-Husseini, an Arab and the Mufti of the British Mandate of Palestine, "was granted the status of honorary Aryan" by the Nazis, whereas Arabs as a whole were considered by Hitler to be "half-monkeys".

    Stephanie von Hohenlohe, a Jewish Austrian princess by marriage and spy for Nazi Germany and declared an honorary Aryan by Heinrich Himmler.
    Emil Maurice, Hitler's first personal chauffeur and a very early member of the Nazi Party, was a member of the SS, but ran afoul of Heinrich Himmler's rules, which required SS men to have deep Aryan ancestry, since Maurice's great-grandfather was Jewish. Himmler considered him to be a security risk, and tried to have him thrown out, but Hitler stood by his old friend and, in a secret letter dated 31 August 1935, required Himmler to allow Maurice and his brothers to remain in the SS. They were considered to be "Honorary Aryans".
    Sophie Lehar (nee Paschkis), the wife of the composer Franz Lehár had been Jewish before her conversion to Catholicism upon marriage. Hitler enjoyed Lehár's music and the Nazis made some propaganda use of it. After Joseph Goebbels' intervened on Lehár's behalf, Mrs. Lehár was given in 1938 the status of "honorary Aryan" by marriage. This certainly saved her life; during the war, attempts were made at least once to have her deported, which was stopped only due to her status.



__________________________________

The Chinese were white – until white men called them yellow

2019

    Europeans referred to East Asians as white until the end of the 18th century

    But as the Chinese and Japanese resisted cultural assimilation they darkened – both in Western eyes and their own

https://www.scmp.com/week-asia/opinion/article/2184754/chinese-were-white-until-white-men-called-them-yellow


__________________________________



Do racial/ethnic differences exist in post-injury outcomes after TBI? A comprehensive review of the literature


2009

https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02699050903200563?src=recsys

 

__________________________________


Racial and Ethnic Differences in Emergency Department Utilization and Diagnosis for Sports-Related Head Injuries

2019


https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6614199/


__________________________________


Race/Ethnicity and Retention in Traumatic Brain Injury Outcomes Research: A Traumatic Brain Injury Model Systems National Database Study

2018

https://journals.lww.com/headtraumarehab/Abstract/2018/07000/Race_Ethnicity_and_Retention_in_Traumatic_Brain.1.aspx


Results:

Retention rates 1 to 2 years post-TBI were significantly lower for Hispanic (85.2%) than for white (91.8%) or black participants (90.5%) and depended significantly on history of problem drug or alcohol use. Other variables associated with low retention included older age, lower education, violent cause of injury, and discharge to an institution versus private residence.


__________________________________


Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Discharge to Rehabilitation Following Burn Injury

2019

https://academic.oup.com/jbcr/article-abstract/40/2/143/5304076?redirectedFrom=fulltext


__________________________________

Race and Factors Associated with Race: Influences on Productivity After Traumatic Brain Injury


https://www.biausa.org/professionals/research/tbi-model-systems/race-and-factors-associated-with-race-influences-on-productivity-after-traumatic-brain-injury


They found that 43% of whites, 22% of African Americans, and 28% of other minority group members were productive at one-year after their injuries. This meant that African Americans were 2.76 times more likely to be nonproductive than whites and that other minority group members were 1.92 times more likely to be nonproductive than whites. The researchers analyzed the data again without race included as a predictive factor for productive outcomes, but with other suspected factors. They found that pre-injury productivity, pre-injury educational levels, and the cause of the injury (violence related) were significantly linked to productive outcomes. Overall, they found that individuals who were productive at the time of their traumatic brain injury were 5.26 times more likely to be productive at one year after their injury date than individuals who were not productive at the time of their injury. The researchers also determined that the factors of pre-injury productivity, pre-injury educational levels, and the cause of the injury were not only associated with productive outcomes, but also with race as well.


__________________________________


Racial disparities and the acute management of severe blunt traumatic brain injury

2019

https://tsaco.bmj.com/content/4/1/e000358


__________________________________

Racial and ethnic disparities in discharge to rehabilitation following traumatic brain injury

2015

https://thejns.org/view/journals/j-neurosurg/122/3/article-p595.xml


RESULTS

The authors identified 299,205 TBI incidents: 232,392 non-Hispanic white, 29,611 Hispanic, and 37,202 black. Propensity weighting resulted in covariate balance among racial groups. Hispanic (adjusted OR 0.71, 95% CI 0.68–0.75) and black (adjusted OR 0.94, 95% CI 0.91–0.97) populations were less likely to be discharged to a higher level of rehabilitation than were non-Hispanic whites. The subgroup analysis indicated that Hispanic (adjusted OR 0.79, 95% CI 0.71–0.86) and black (OR 0.87, 95% CI 0.81–0.94) populations were still less likely to receive a higher level of rehabilitation, despite uniform insurance coverage (Medicare).


__________________________________

Race Difference

Race differences have been demonstrated in epidemiological studies of migraine, suggesting altered genetic susceptibility (Breslau and Rasmussen 2001).

From: Orofacial Pain and Headache, 2008

https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/race-difference



__________________________________



Racial Disparities in Health Outcomes After Spinal Cord Injury: Mediating Effects of Education and Income

2006

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1864787/


__________________________________



Racial Differences in the Evaluation of Pediatric Fractures for Physical Abuse

2002

https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/195342



__________________________________



Racial Trauma: Theory, Research, and Healing: Introduction to the Special Issue

2019

https://psycnet.apa.org/fulltext/2019-01033-001.html


__________________________________



Biological sex differences: bones & muscles

2017

https://fairplayforwomen.com/biological-sex-differences/



What are the differences between male and female skeletons?

WOMEN ARE SHORTER, about 9% on average. Nigerians have the smallest recorded height difference between the sexes at 4%, while men of the UAE are 11% taller than their women.

MALE BONES ARE BIGGER AND STRONGER, in both size and density. Peak male bone mass is around 50% more than women’s, and women lose bone faster as we age. Black people have significantly stronger bones than whites: black women’s peak bone mass is the same as white men’s.

WOMEN AND MEN HAVE THE SAME NUMBER OF RIBS. We have 12 pairs, though some people are born with 11 or 13 pairs to no ill effect.

MEN HAVE BIGGER HEADS AND LONGER ARMS AND LEGS than women, relative to body size. Sources differ on comparative limb length but they all agree women have smaller, lighter heads & necks. Did you know a human head weighs about 5kg?




__________________________________



Neoteny in humans

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neoteny_in_humans


Neoteny in humans is the retention of juvenile features well into adulthood. This trend is greatly amplified in humans especially when compared to non-human primates. Adult humans more closely resemble the infants of gorillas and chimpanzees than the adults. Neotenic features of the head include the globular skull; thinness of skull bones; the reduction of the brow ridge; the large brain; the flattened and broadened face; the hairless face; hair on (top of) the head; larger eyes; ear shape; small nose; small teeth; and the small maxilla (upper jaw) and mandible (lower jaw).

Neoteny of the human body is indicated by glabrousness (hairless body). Neoteny of the genitals is marked by the absence of a baculum (penis bone); the presence of a hymen; and the forward-facing vagina. Neoteny in humans is further indicated by the limbs and body posture, with the limbs proportionately short compared to torso length; longer leg than arm length; the structure of the foot; and the upright stance.

Humans also retain a plasticity of behavior that is generally found among animals only in the young. The emphasis on learned, rather than inherited, behavior requires the human brain to remain receptive much longer. These neotenic changes may have disparate roots. Some may have been brought about by sexual selection in human evolution. In turn, they may have permitted the development of human capacities such as emotional communication. However, humans also have relatively large noses and long legs, both peramorphic (not neotenic) traits, though said peramorphic traits that separate modern humans from extant chimpanzees were present in Homo erectus to an even higher degree than in Homo sapiens, keeping general neoteny valid for the erectus to sapiens transition although there were perimorphic changes separating erectus from even earlier hominins such as most Australopithecus. Later research shows that some species of Australopithecus, including Australopithecus sediba, had the non-neotenic traits of Homo erectus to at least the same extent which separate them from other Australopithecus, making it possible that general neoteny applies throughout the evolution of the genus Homo depending on what species of Australopithecus that Homo descended from. The type specimen of sediba had these non-neotenic traits despite being a juvenile, suggesting that the adults may have been less neotenic in these regards than any Homo erectus or other Homo.




__________________________________




Leg Length, Body Proportion, and Health: A Review with a Note on Beauty

2010

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2872302/


__________________________________


‘How do cyclists get big legs?’ – you asked Google and we’ve got the answer

April 28, 2020

Looking to build some muscle through cycling? You may need to hit the gym, too

https://www.cyclingweekly.com/fitness/training/how-do-cyclists-get-big-legs-383548


__________________________________



Race and Physical Differences

https://www.amren.com/news/2008/02/race_and_physic_1/


__________________________________


The Skeleton, Race, and Ethnicity

2002

https://academic.oup.com/jcem/article/87/7/3047/2846519

__________________________________

Injury Statistics by Race go Uncollected

2014

https://www.nytimes.com/2014/10/10/us/injury-statistics-by-race-go-uncollected.html



__________________________________



Do Black People Have Better Genetics For Building Muscle?

https://nattyornot.com/black-people-better-genetics-building-muscle/


The Slave Period

A lot of people attribute the muscle power of the black man to the slave period when blacks were forced to work day and night, and therefore, only the strongest survived.

It’s true that only healthy and strong people can endure similar torture, but it would be naive to conclude that slavery has altered the genetic pool so much.

__________________________________

Why are ALL weightlifting records and strongman competions dominated by white men?


https://forum.bodybuilding.com/showthread.php?t=162989901


__________________________________

Is it safe to say that WHITE MEN are the strongest men in the world?

https://au.answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20100711091609AAovEhK


Comment:



The world boxing champion title is often won and held by white men from Eastern Europe... currently a Ukrainian man "Vitali Klitschko" is the world boxing heavy weight champion.

The world strongest man competition is always won by white men...  Currently "Žydrūnas Savickas" holds the title.

The World's weight lifting competitions are also always won by white men, and the worlds strongest and most powerful nations are white nations that are run by white men


Update:

So if white men are physically the strongest and black men are physically the fastest

what are Asian, Arab, Indian and Mexican men??

Update 2:

We invented guns to deal in war when we are outnumbered.... You do know that white people are a minority population in the world... Also it took ONLY 200 white Spanish men to conquer the entire South America... What do u think of that, thats when guns become useful... when is 200 vs 100,000,000

Update 3:

Sr televisión- those guys u mentioned are small lightweight and they fight weak people, against East Europeans they would not last one minute.. also there are not many white boxers in u.s, go to East Europe where champions are born and live, and you will get dominated.

Update 4:

well in light weight completions, speed matters therefore black men have a advange cuz they are faster

in heavy weight competition only strength matters... therefore whites have a advantage in UFC- man like brock lesnar dominate
Update 5:


Comment Reply Debate:


@Sr televisión- U ARE THE STUPIDEST IDIOT I HAVE EVER SEEN, EVERYTHING THAT U JUST SAID I CAN SAY BACK

THERE AREN'T ANY GOOD BLACK MEN IN HEAVYWEIGHT DIVISIONS?? WELL THEN THERE AREN'T ANY GOOD WHITE MEN IN LIGHTWEIGHT DIVISIONS

BY THE WAY MOST OF THE BOXERS IN U.S ARE BLACK.. SO OF COURSE THEY WILL DOMINATE IN U.S BUT THE SECOND THEY GO AND COMPETE IN EAST EUROPE THEY LOSE, ONLY THE U.S MEDIA DOES NOT LIKE EAST EUROPE SO THEY DONT SHOW THE LOSES ON U.S TELEVISION.

YOU ARE A IDIOT, DO SOME RESEARCH BEFORE U TALK




__________________________________





White men are stronger!!!!!

2009

https://www.stormfront.org/forum/t486922-2/


Quote:

Originally Posted by davepoole View Post
The worlds strongest man contest has been won by white men only in its 30 year history.

Jon Pall Sigmarsson
Magnus Ver Magnusson
Marius Puddianowski
Janne Virtannen
Jouke Ahola
Magnus Samuelsson
Bill Kazmaier (from Alabama)
Svend Karlsson (but he married to a gook now )


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World's_Strongest_Man

All there guys and all white men
Puddianowski is a beast. Used to love Ahola when he was around.

blacks have flashy muscles with a lot of fast twitch fibres
where as Whites have 'real power' muscle with more slow twitch fibres.

 _____________________________________

 

_____________________________________

__________________________________

__________________________________

__________________________________


Section 4: Alcohol & LSD

__________________________________

__________________________________

__________________________________

_____________________________________

_____________________________________

Alcohol consumption among white, black, or oriental men and women: Kaiser-Permanente multiphasic health examination data

1977

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/848480/


__________________________________

Black–White Differences in the Relationship Between Alcohol Drinking Patterns and Mortality Among US Men and Women

2015

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4455501/

 

__________________________________

Racial/Ethnic Differences in the Etiology of Alcohol Use Among Urban Adolescents

2011

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3174025/


__________________________________

Alcohol tolerance

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcohol_tolerance

 

__________________________________

Study tracks racial differences in alcohol consumption

2013

https://www.thedrinksbusiness.com/2013/08/study-tracks-racial-differences-in-alcohol-consumption/

 

__________________________________

Racial and Ethnic Differences in Alcohol-Associated Aspartate Aminotransferase and γ-Glutamyltransferase Elevation

October 28, 2002

https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamainternalmedicine/fullarticle/213675

Background  

Recent analyses have confirmed that Hispanic and black non-Hispanic Americans are at an increased risk for death from liver cirrhosis. The reasons for this are unknown. As a common cause of cirrhosis, differing sensitivities to alcohol-related hepatocellular injury may play a role. This study compared racial and ethnic aspartate aminotransferase and γ-glutamyltransferase level elevations within alcohol-drinking categories.

__________________________________

Alcohol and Highway Safety: A Special Report On Race/Ethnicity and Impaired Driving

November 2010

https://www.nhtsa.gov/sites/nhtsa.dot.gov/files/tt398.pdf

 

__________________________________


Preventing Substance Abuse Among African American Children and Youth: Race Differences in Risk Factor Exposure and Vulnerability

2002

https://www.ok.gov/odmhsas/documents/Preventing%20Substance%20Abuse.pdf


__________________________________



Racial/Ethnic Differences in Drug- and Alcohol-Related Arrest Outcomes in a Southwest County From 2009 to 2018

January 2020

https://ajph.aphapublications.org/doi/10.2105/AJPH.2019.305409


__________________________________


  Hallucinogenic Drugs in Psychiatric Research and Treatment:
  Perspectives and Prospects

1995

http://psychedelic-library.org/rjspap.htm


__________________________________



Chapter 1 - An introduction to psychedelic neuroscience

2018

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0079612318301195

__________________________________

Psychedelic crossings: American mental health and LSD in the 1970s

https://mh.bmj.com/content/46/3/184

 

__________________________________


Psychedelics and the CIA

2013

https://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Psychedelics+and+the+CIA


__________________________________


Timothy Leary's liberation, and the CIA's experiments! LSD's amazing, psychedelic history

2013

The U.S. psychedelic drug scene was kickstarted by spies and spooks, just as much as Timothy Leary and Jerry Garcia

https://www.salon.com/2013/12/14/timothy_learys_liberation_and_the_cias_experiments_lsds_amazing_psychedelic_history/

__________________________________

The CIA's Appalling Human Experiments With Mind Control

https://www.history.com/mkultra-operation-midnight-climax-cia-lsd-experiments


__________________________________

Soldier cannot sue government for LSD experiments - U.S. v. Stanley, 479 U.S. 1005 (1986)


https://biotech.law.lsu.edu/cases/research/stanley.htm


__________________________________


MK Ultra: CIA Admits Behavioral Engineering On Humans

2013

https://www.collective-evolution.com/2013/01/19/cia-admits-behavioral-engineering-on-humans-mk-ultra/


__________________________________


Transhumanism - From MK Ultra to Google -

May 2014

https://www.bibliotecapleyades.net/ciencia/ciencia_transhumanism37.htm


__________________________________


Hitting the Brain's Reset Button

December 1, 2016

Doctors are investigating MDMA, LSD, and psilocybin as treatments for a range of psychiatric disorders.

https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/article/ptsd-drug-treatment/


__________________________________

Molecular genetic responses to lysergic acid diethylamide include transcriptional activation of MAP kinase phosphatase‐1, C/EBP‐β and ILAD‐1, a novel gene with homology to arrestins

June 18, 2004

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1471-4159.2004.02515.x

 

Abstract 

 

We recently demonstrated that the potent hallucinogenic drug lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) dynamically influences the expression of a small collection of genes within the mammalian prefrontal cortex. Towards generating a greater understanding of the molecular genetic effects of hallucinogens and how they may relate to alterations in behavior, we have identified and characterized expression patterns of a new collection of three genes increased in expression by acute LSD administration. These genes were identified through additional screens of Affymetrix DNA microarrays and examined in experiments to assess dose-response, time course and the receptor mediating the expression changes. The first induced gene, C/EBP-beta, is a transcription factor. The second gene, MKP-1, suggests that LSD activates the MAP (mitogen activated protein) kinase pathway. The third gene, ILAD-1, demonstrates sequence similarity to the arrestins. The increase in expression of each gene was partially mediated through LSD interactions at 5-HT2A (serotonin) receptors. There is evidence of alternative splicing at the ILAD-1 locus. Furthermore, data suggests that various splice isoforms of ILAD-1 respond differently at the transcriptional level to LSD. The genes thus far found to be responsive to LSD are beginning to give a more complete picture of the complex intracellular events initiated by hallucinogens.

__________________________________


Could Hallucinogens Induce Permanent Pupillary Changes in (Ab)users? A Case Report from New Zealand

2017

https://www.hindawi.com/journals/crinm/2017/2503762/


__________________________________


A Single Dose of LSD Does Not Alter Gene Expression of the Serotonin 2A Receptor Gene (HTR2A) or Early Growth Response Genes (EGR1-3) in Healthy Subjects

June 28, 2017

https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fphar.2017.00423/full

Rationale: Renewed interest has been seen in the use of lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) in psychiatric research and practice. The repeated use of LSD leads to tolerance that is believed to result from serotonin (5-HT) 5-HT_2A receptor downregulation. In rats, daily LSD administration for 4 days decreased frontal cortex 5-HT_2A receptor binding. Additionally, a single dose of LSD acutely increased expression of the early growth response genes EGR1 and EGR2 in rat and mouse brains through 5-HT_2A receptor stimulation. No human data on the effects of LSD on gene expression has been reported. Therefore, we investigated the effects of single-dose LSD administration on the expression of the 5-HT_2A receptor gene (HTR2A) and EGR1-3 genes.

Methods: mRNA expression levels were analyzed in whole blood as a peripheral biomarker in 15 healthy subjects before and 1.5 and 24 h after the administration of LSD (100 μg) and placebo in a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, cross-over study.

Results: LSD did not alter the expression of the HTR2A or EGR1-3 genes 1.5 and 24 h after administration compared with placebo.

Conclusion: No changes were observed in the gene expression of LSD’s primary target receptor gene or genes that are implicated in its downstream effects. Remaining unclear is whether chronic LSD administration alters gene expression in humans.

__________________________________

Chronic LSD alters gene expression profiles in the mPFC relevant to schizophrenia

August 2014

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/261326525_Chronic_LSD_alters_gene_expression_profiles_in_the_mPFC_relevant_to_schizophrenia

__________________________________


A single dose of lysergic acid diethylamide influences gene expression patterns within the mammalian brain

May 2002

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11927188/

__________________________________


10 Conspiracy Theories About MK-ULTRA You May Not Know

2019

https://listverse.com/2019/05/15/10-conspiracy-theories-about-mk-ultra-you-may-not-know/


__________________________________

British psychiatry: from eugenics to assassination

2002

http://www.actionlyme.org/BRITISH_PSYCHIATRY.htm

 

_____________________________________

_____________________________________

__________________________________

__________________________________

__________________________________


Section 5: Motion Sickness

__________________________________

__________________________________

__________________________________

_____________________________________

_____________________________________

Effects of ethnicity and gender on motion sickness susceptibility

November 2005

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/7456164_Effects_of_ethnicity_and_gender_on_motion_sickness_susceptibility

Abstract

 

Susceptibility to motion sickness (MS) is known to be affected by gender and ethnic origin, but whether gender and ethnicity are interacting is unknown. We investigated MS development in healthy Caucasian subjects (n = 227), and in subjects of Chinese origin (n = 82). All subjects were exposed to nausea-inducing body rotations in a rotation chair, and rotated around the yaw axis for 5 x 1 min, while they were instructed to move their heads. Prior to rotation, subjects had to fill out a motion-sickness susceptibility questionnaire (MSSQ). Total rotation tolerance time (RT) was noted. Symptom ratings (SR) were performed at the beginning, and immediately after the end of each rotation, and 15 and 30 min later. The average RT was significantly higher in Caucasian (163 +/- 6 s) than in Chinese subjects (111 +/- 7 s) (F = 24.84, p < 0.0001). The adult MSSQ score was significantly lower in Caucasians (17.8 +/- 1.1) than in Chinese volunteers (24.2 +/- 2.1) (F = 6.05, p = 0.014). Maximal SR post rotation was similar in Chinese and Caucasian subjects. RT was highly predictable from the MSSQ scores, but separate for both genders. Susceptibility to MS is affected by both ethnic origin and by gender in a rather complex fashion. The most reliable prediction of RT can be based on the individual's history as assessed by the MSSQ.

__________________________________




Virtual Reality's Next Hurdle: Overcoming 'Sim Sickness'

Aug 10, 2014

https://www.wyomingpublicmedia.org/post/virtual-realitys-next-hurdle-overcoming-sim-sickness#stream/0


__________________________________

Motion sickness vs. cybersickness: Two different problems or the same condition?

October 23, 2018

Findings of a new study contradict previous research

https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2018/10/181023085654.htm

 

__________________________________

Effects of Ethnicity and Gender on Motion Sickness Susceptibility

2005

https://www-users.york.ac.uk/~gh1/pdf/2005Klosterhalfen.pdf


FOR MOST CLINICAL conditions and proceduresthat entail a risk of developing nausea and vomiting(N&V), e.g., post-operative, chemotherapy, un-der opioids, during angiography, and in func-tional bowel disorder, N&V is reported to be higherin women than in men. Even under natural conditions,e.g., during sea travel or during turbulence in air-crafts, women report more N&V than men. How-ever, when susceptibility to developing N&V wastested between the genders during experiments involv-ing nauseogenic body rotation or pseudo-rotation (vec-tion), gender effects could not be confirmed. In-stead, it was found that although women might reportmore subjective symptoms of N&V as recorded onsymptom ratings (SR) scales, the biologicalmarkers of N&V or tolerance to rotation (RT) were notaltered.Gender differences have occasionally been attributedto differences in symptom awareness and the willing-ness to acknowledge such symptoms in socially con-trolled situations. In one experiment, however, thegender of the experimenter did not influence the SR ofthe volunteers, leaving the question open as to

whether any gender difference reflects a response biasor is due to biological differences in susceptibility tomotion.Gender influences not only the occurrence of symp-toms of N&V but also the effectiveness of treatment forit: women showed less symptom improvement whentreated for N&V with anti-emetic (e.g., 5-HT3-antago-nistic) drugs. It has been postulated that polymor-phisms of genes regulating the serotoninergic systemmay be responsible for the reduced effectiveness ofanti-emetic medication, but the data are so far incon-clusive, and a strong association of therapyeffectiveness with gender has not been demonstrated.Higher susceptibility to motion and motion-induced N&V is well established in Asian subjects, as comparedwith Caucasians or people of African origin. This holdstrue for experimentally-induced motion or pseudo-motion and also for clinical conditions with in-creased risk of N&V, such as with chemotherapy incancer patients or invasive medical procedures. However, N&V associated with migraine seems tobe lower in Asians as compared with Americans. Asian hypersusceptibility to motion sickness has beenlinked to genetic traits, but the data are so farinconclusive. Whether gender differences in motionsickness susceptibility as discussed above are main-tained in the Asian population is so far unknown.


__________________________________

Targeting TRPV1 to relieve motion sickness symptoms in mice by electroacupuncture and gene deletion

July 9, 2018

https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-018-23793-6

 

__________________________________

Genetic variants associated with motion sickness point to roles for inner ear development, neurological processes and glucose homeostasis

May 1, 2015

https://academic.oup.com/hmg/article/24/9/2700/2385879

 
__________________________________

Stanford researchers find that automated speech recognition is more likely to misinterpret black speakers

March 23, 2020

https://news.stanford.edu/2020/03/23/automated-speech-recognition-less-accurate-blacks/


__________________________________

Racial disparities in automated speech recognition

April 7, 2020

https://www.pnas.org/content/117/14/7684


__________________________________


Voice Recognition Still Has Significant Race and Gender Biases

May 10, 2019

https://hbr.org/2019/05/voice-recognition-still-has-significant-race-and-gender-biases


__________________________________

 

‘Why Are Black People So Loud?’ One University Says It’s OK to Ask

May 17, 2018

https://www.chronicle.com/article/why-are-black-people-so-loud-one-university-says-its-ok-to-ask/

 

_________________________________

Race and “Voice Quality:” A Skeptic’s Viewpoint

April 17, 2013

http://dialectblog.com/2013/04/17/race-and-voice-quality/

__________________________________


Racial and Ethnic Members of Under-Represented Groups with Hearing Loss and VR Services: Explaining the Disparity in Closure Success Rates

https://connect.springerpub.com/content/sgrjarc/32/1/15


Abstract

The purpose of this study was to explain, from a VR service perspective, reported differences in proportions of successful closures (i.e., status 26) based on race/ethnicity (Caucasians, African-American, American-Indian, Asian-American) and Hispanic origin (Latinos, non-Latinos) for persons who are deaf or hard of hearing. A series of cross tabulations and chi square analyses were utilized to investigate potential relationships between variables. Caucasians were found to achieve successful closure at a significantly higher proportion than did members of the race/ethnicity variable; non-Latinos were found to achieve successful closure at a significantly higher proportion than Latinos; a significantly lower proportion of those services found to be significantly associated with closure success (assessment and restoration) were provided to members of the race/ethnicity variable; a significantly lower proportion of those services (assessment, counseling and guidance, restoration, and job placement) found to be significantly associated with closure success were provided to Latinos. Implications of findings for service and research are discussed.

__________________________________


Effects of ethnicity and gender on the middle ear function in Asian adults

2017

http://www.indianjotol.org/article.asp?issn=0971-7749;year=2017;volume=23;issue=2;spage=94;epage=97;aulast=Lih


Conclusions        

While no statistical differences in tympanometric results were found between Malay and Chinese groups, the gender effect was observed in SA and ECV parameters of tympanometry. For a more accurate diagnosis of the middle ear status among Malay and Chinese patients with the standard 226 Hz tympanometry, we recommend the use of gender-specific normative data obtained from the present study. Nevertheless, for assessing patients in a global manner, more studies are warranted. Perhaps, future studies should focus on expanding the tympanometric normative data by including different age groups (e.g., middle age, elderly, etc.) and other ethnicity groups (e.g., Northern Chinese, Indian, etc.).


__________________________________


A study shows the influence of immersive virtual reality on racial bias

2017

http://www.neurociencies.ub.edu/virtual-reality-racial-bias-2/


Researchers of the Institute of Neurosciences have studied the influence of immersive virtual reality (IVR) on racial bias. The study, published in the journal PLOS ONE, has used this technology to analyse the effects of immersion on a virtual person in automatic behaviours towards other races.

The results show that adopting a certain virtual race, regardless of the real one, has an effect on certain unconscious behaviours towards virtual people with the same color. According to the researchers, these results show the impact of these experiences in the perception, behaviour and attitudes but they also open the door to the uses of this technology to fight racist attitudes.

The study was led by Mel Slater, ICREA researcher from the Event Lab of the University of Barcelona. The study also counts with the participation of the expert of the UB Bernhard Spanlang and Béatrice S. Hasler, from the Sammy Ofer School of Communications in Israel.

 

_____________________________________

_____________________________________

__________________________________

__________________________________

__________________________________


Section 6: Face & Genetics

__________________________________

__________________________________

__________________________________

_____________________________________

_____________________________________

Facial Genetics: A Brief Overview

October 16, 2018

https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fgene.2018.00462/full


__________________________________



Effect of aging and body characteristics on facial sexual dimorphism in the Caucasian Population

May 14, 2020

https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0231983


__________________________________

Differences In Life Expectancy Due To Race And Educational Differences Are Widening, And Many May Not Catch Up

August 2012

https://www.healthaffairs.org/doi/full/10.1377/hlthaff.2011.0746



__________________________________



Bones Help Black People Keep Facial Aging at Bay

June 11, 2019

https://www.comhs.org/about-us/newsroom/health-library/2019/06/11/bones-help-black-people-keep-facial-aging-at-bay


TUESDAY, June 11, 2019 (HealthDay News) -- Why do so many black adults continue to look youthful as they age?

A new study says it's in their bones.

Researchers found that the facial bones of black adults retain a higher mineral content than those other races, which makes their faces less likely to reflect their advancing years.

The new study is the first to document how facial bones change as black adults age, and may help guide plastic surgeons' work.

"It is important for plastic surgeons to understand how the facial aging process differs among racial and ethnic groups to provide the best treatment," said study author Dr. Boris Paskhover. He is an assistant professor at Rutgers New Jersey Medical School, in Newark.

For the study, his team looked at medical records of 20 black adults from 1973 and 2017. The study patients had at least two face scans taken 10 years apart.

Although all of the faces changed over time, they showed only minor changes, compared to similar studies on the aging white population.

"This finding reflects other studies that show black adults have higher bone mineral density, decreased rates of bone loss and lower rates of osteoporosis as compared to the general population," Paskhover said in a university news release.

Facial aging results from a combination of changes to the skin, muscle, fat and bones.

As people age, the loss of mineral density causes bone loss. Bone loss can affect the shape of the nose, lower jowl area, cheekbones, and middle and lower areas of the eye sockets, the researchers explained.

"As bones change, they affect the soft tissue around them, resulting in perceived decreases in facial volume," Paskhover said. "Treatment should consider the underlying bone structure."

The report was published online recently in JAMA Facial Plastic Surgery.



__________________________________




The effects of skin aging vary depending on ethnicity, review finds

26-Jul-2019

https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2019-07/bmc-teo072619.php


Boston - The population in the United States is expected to become increasingly older, with estimates indicating that by the year 2030, nearly 40 percent of Americans will be over the age of 65.

As people are living longer, their skin is not only chronologically, or biologically aging, but it is also being exposed to environmental factors, such as sunlight, which can cause age-related damage to the skin.

Neelam Vashi, MD, director of the Center for Ethnic Skin at Boston Medical Center, has published a review paper in Clinics in Dermatology that discusses how aging presents in patients, and the differences that are attributed to skin type, exposures and genetic factors.

For the review, the researchers examined 41 peer-reviewed published articles between 1970 and 2018 that focused on aging in ethnic skin through PubMed. The data included in the articles demonstrate that all skin types will show signs of damage from exposure to Ultraviolet rays from the sun, which include skin discoloration, loss of collagen and/or skin cancer.

Here are some key findings from the review:

    Melanin is a key difference in those of light and dark skin types
    Patients of color are more likely to experience changes in pigmentation (dyschromia)
    Key differences in fibroblasts (cells that promote wound healing and collagen production) account for increased skin thickness of African-American patients, resulting in wrinkles that appear several years later than white counterparts
    Patients of East Asian descent have a higher likelihood of experiencing hyperpigmentation, but wrinkles don't form as early in the aging process
    Patients of Hispanic descent also experience fewer wrinkles earlier in the aging process
    Patients of Caucasian descent (European, North African, Southwest Asian ancestry) more commonly have thinner skin and experience wrinkles, loss of skin elasticity, and reduced lip volume

"Aging is inevitable, and each person will have a unique experience with how their skin changes as it ages," said Vashi, who is also an associate professor of dermatology at Boston University School of Medicine.

As a dermatologist, Vashi treats a large number of patients for a variety of skin conditions related to aging. The one treatment she always recommends is UV protection, which helps shield all skin types from the sun's harmful rays. "Skin cancer is the most common type of cancer in the US, and using sunscreen is an extremely important practice to protect your skin," added Vashi.



__________________________________



Facial Bones of Black Adults Age Differently Than Other Races, Rutgers Study Finds

June 4, 2019

https://www.rutgers.edu/news/facial-bones-black-adults-age-differently-other-races-rutgers-study-finds



__________________________________



Analysis of facial soft tissue changes with aging and their effects on facial morphology: A forensic perspective

June 2015

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2090536X14000501


__________________________________

Do We Really Live Longer Than Our Ancestors?

https://getpocket.com/explore/item/do-we-really-live-longer-than-our-ancestors?utm_source=pocket-newtab

 

__________________________________


From Race to Melanin Matters: the Mathematics of Skin Color

2019

http://lapeaulogie.fr/from-race-to-melanin-matters-the-mathematics-of-skin-color/


__________________________________

This chicken has black bones, organs, and meat: Here’s why.

September 17, 2019

There are four breeds of chicken that have black insides, and all of them possess the same genetic mutation. A scientist explains how it came about.

https://www.nationalgeographic.co.uk/animals/2019/09/chicken-has-black-bones-organs-and-meat-heres-why

__________________________________

New study finds animals with black skin, fur are not black by chance

March 18th, 2015

https://hudsonalpha.org/new-study-finds-animals-black-skin-fur-not-black-chance/

Animals with black skin or fur are not black by chance, suggests new research, but because the dark coloration helps them live longer.

The finding adds to the growing body of evidence that black coloration isn’t just a product of genetic drift — happenstance in the course of evolution.

The coloration stems from melanism, or development of the dark-colored pigment melanin in the skin and its appendages (fur, hair, eyelashes, etc.). How melanism directly ties to better health, however, remains a mystery.
Monkey Mustaches Reveal Evolution of Facial Hair

“We don’t know for certain,” said Gregory Barsh of the HudsonAlpha Institute for Biotechnology, co-author of the study “Recurrent Evolution of Melanism in South American Felids,” which was published Feb. 19, 2015, in PLOS Genetics. “Factors such as foliage, humidity, temperature, and/or infectious agents are all possibilities, and could affect camouflage, resistance to heat or thermoregulation, or resistance to infections.”

He added that one of the most famous examples of melanism working to a species’ advantage is the dark peppered moth, which blends in more easily in dark surroundings — offering better camouflage from prey.

Lead author Alexsandra Schneider, senior author Eduardo Eizirik and their colleagues have studied melanism before in other animals, but focused their work this time on three closely related South American wild cats: the pampas cat, the kodkod, and Geoffroy’s cat. They identified the mutations responsible for melanism in the cats, and found that there was strong evidence for natural selection of black coloration, particularly for pampas cats.

Linking domestic cats and their wild counterparts, the researchers found that the same gene that causes melanism in the pampas cat and the kodkod also causes the rich black fur of certain leopards, panthers and jaguars, as well as house kitties that sport such a coat, Eizirik told Discovery News. He is a researcher at the Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio Grande do Sul and the Instituto Pró-Carnívoros, both of which are in Brazil.

Barsh mentioned that, in an earlier study, he and his colleagues also found that “black wolves may have increased fitness in some environments due to a melanism mutation in a different gene from the ones studied here.” Certain domesticated dogs may also benefit from darker fur colors, although breeding by humans now influences the process.

Research on baby owls conducted by another team found that melanism in these birds, via gene expression, may be tied to sleep patterns and even brain development.

Dark spots in owls corresponds to a range of behavioral traits which have been tied to immune system function and energy regulation in the animals, explained co-author Alexander Roulin from the University of Lausanne.
Cats Have Super, Psychedelic Vision

It could be that melanism’s perks are compromised when a species moves to a place with a different climate and habitat.

“For example,” Eizirik said, “a small black cat may have increased fitness in a dark forest, but decreased fitness in an open field.”

In this case, even if the dark fur and skin help with immunity and other things, those would be lost if the animal is highly visible to predators.

As for humans, it appears that predation was not the greatest factor affecting gene expression for skin and hair coloration, at least during the more recent stages of human evolution.


__________________________________

The Origin of Mysterious, Dark-Skinned Blonds Discovered

May 03, 2012

https://www.livescience.com/20078-gene-mutation-blond-hair.html


Residents of the Solomon Islands in the Pacific have some of the darkest skin seen outside of Africa. They also have the highest occurrence of blond hair seen in any population outside of Europe. Now, researchers have found the single gene that explains these fair tresses.

A single mutation is responsible for almost half of the variation in Solomon Islanders' hair color, the scientists reported Thursday (May 3) in the journal Science. Most strikingly, this gene mutation seems to have arisen in the Pacific, not been brought in by fair-haired Europeans intermarrying with islanders.

"[T]he human characteristic of blond hair arose independently in equatorial Oceania," study researcher Eimear Kenny, a postodoctoral scholar at the Stanford University School of Medicine, said in a statement. "That's quite unexpected and fascinating."

Kenny's colleagues Sean Myles and Nicholas Timpson traveled to the remote Solomon islands, where Myles, now a professor at Nova Scotia Agricultural College, had previously noted a surprising number of blonds.

"They have this very dark skin and bright blond hair. It was mind-blowing," Myles said in a statement. "As a geneticist on the beach watching the kids playing, you count up the frequency of kids with blond hair, and say, 'Wow, it's 5 to 10 percent.'" [Photos of Beautiful Beaches]

That's not very far off from the proportion of blond-haired people in Europe, Kenny said. The researchers gathered saliva from 43 blond and 42 dark-haired Solomon Islanders to analyze for clues to the genes behind their hair color.

A genome-wide analysis turned up a shockingly clear result, rare in the world of genetics where a single trait can be influenced by dozens or more genes. A gene called TYRP1, which resides on the ninth chromosome of human's 23 pairs of chromosomes, explained 46.4 percent of the variation in the islanders' hair color. (Chromosomes are coiled packets of DNA.) A mutation in this gene affects an enzyme known to be involved in human pigmentation, the researchers found.

This mutation doesn't appear in European genomes, an analysis of genomes from 52 human populations around the world revealed. Rather, it seems to have arisen independently and persisted in the Melanesian population.

That makes the gene different from the one responsible for blue eyes, which arose from a single common ancestor between 6,000 and 10,000 years ago. Before then, there were no blue eyes, they said.

The find solves a nifty genetic mystery, but it also highlights the dangers of assuming that genome findings from one population will translate to another, said study author Carlos Bustamante, a professor of genetics at Stanford.

"If we're going to be designing the next generation of medical treatments using genetic information and we don't have a really broad spectrum of populations included, you could disproportionately benefit some populations and harm others," Bustamante said.



__________________________________

 

Jōmon people

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C5%8Dmon_people

Jōmon people (縄文人, Jōmon jin) is the generic name of several people who lived in the Japanese archipelago during the Jōmon period. Today, most Japanese historians raise the possibility that the Jōmon were not a single homogeneous people but consisted of multiple groups. According to one study in September 2016, modern Japanese people have inherited on average about 13% of their genome from a Jōmon population represented by a specimen obtained from the Funadomari archaeological site on Rebun Island. The indigenous Ryukyuan and Ainu peoples have higher amounts of Jōmon ancestry than the Japanese do.

 

__________________________________

The effects of skin tone, height, and gender on earnings

January 2, 2018

https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0190640


Abstract

Using a theoretical approach grounded in implicit bias and stereotyping theories, this study examines the relationship between observable physical characteristics (skin tone, height, and gender) and earnings, as measured by income. Combining separate streams of research on the influence of these three characteristics, we draw from a sample of 31,356 individual-year observations across 4,340 individuals from the National Longitudinal Study of Youth (NLSY) 1997. We find that skin tone, height, and gender interact such that taller males with darker skin tone attain lower earnings; those educated beyond high school, endowed with higher cognitive ability, and at the higher income level (>75th percentile) had even lower levels of earnings relative to individuals with lighter skin tone. The findings have implications for implicit bias theories, stereotyping, and the human capital literature within the fields of management, applied psychology, and economics.



__________________________________




A comparison of black and white skin using noninvasive methods

1996

http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.517.9585&rep=rep1&type=pdf



__________________________________




Ethnic skin types: are there differences in skin structure and function?

March 28, 2006

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1467-2494.2006.00302.x


__________________________________

 

Structure and function of ethnic skin and hair.

2003

https://europepmc.org/article/med/14717400

__________________________________

Indian Caste System And Skin Color Go Hand In Hand: Study

Nov 20, 2016

http://www.itechpost.com/articles/56410/20161120/indian-caste-system-skin-color-go-hand-study.htm



__________________________________

Racial Differences in Clinical Characteristics, Perceptions and Behaviors, and Psychosocial Impact of Adult Female Acne

July, 2014



https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4106354/


Abstract

Objective: Limited data are available on racial differences in clinical characteristics and burden in adult female acne. The objective was to describe racial differences in clinical characteristics, psychosocial impact, perceptions, behaviors, and treatment satisfaction in facial adult female acne. Design: Cross-sectional, web-based survey. Setting: Diverse sample of United States women. Participants: Women between the ages of 25 and 45 years with facial acne (≥25 visible lesions). Measurements: Outcomes included sociodemographic characteristics, psychosocial impacts, perceptions, behaviors, and treatment satisfaction. Racial differences were evaluated using descriptive statistics and t-test/chi-square analyses. Results: 208 females participated (mean age 35±6 years); 51.4 percent were White/Caucasian and 48.6 percent were non-White/Caucasian women [Black/African American (n=51); Hispanic/Latina (n=23); Asian (n=16); Other (n=ll)]. Age of acne onset (mean 14.8±5 vs. 17.0±8 years, p<0.05) and acne concern occurred earlier (16.6±7 vs. 19.3±9 years, p<0.05) in White/Caucasian than non-White/Caucasian subjects. Facial acne primarily presented on chin (28.0%) and cheeks (30.8%) for White/Caucasian women versus cheeks (58.4%) for non-White/Caucasian women. Non-White/Caucasian women experienced more postinflammatory hyperpigmentation than White/Caucasian women (p<0.0001). Facial acne negatively affected quality of life (QoL) in both groups, and most participants (>70%) reported some depression/anxiety symptoms. More White/Caucasian than non-White/Caucasian women were troubled by facial acne (88.8% vs. 76.2%, p<0.05). Lesion clearance was most important to White/Caucasian women (57.9 vs. non-White/Caucasian 31.7%, p<0.001); non-White/Caucasian females focused on postinflammatory hyperpigmentation clearance (41.6% vs. Caucasian 8.4%, p<0.0001). Conclusion: Results highlight racial differences in participant-reported clinical characteristics, attitudes, behaviors, and treatment satisfaction. These findings may inform clinicians about racial differences in facial adult female acne and guide treatment recommendations toward improving care.



__________________________________




What are the race-related demographics of acne vulgaris?

Aug 28, 2020

Acne is common in North American whites. African Americans have a higher prevalence of pomade acne, likely stemming from the use of hair pomades. Ethnicities with darker skin are also more prone to postinflammatory hyperpigmentation.

https://www.medscape.com/answers/1069804-90313/what-are-the-race-related-demographics-of-acne-vulgaris


__________________________________

How does the site of keloids and hypertrophic scars vary by race?

May 29, 2020

https://www.medscape.com/answers/1057599-91478/how-does-the-site-of-keloids-and-hypertrophic-scars-vary-by-race


In white persons, keloids tend to be present, in decreasing order of frequency, on the face (with cheek and earlobes predominating), upper extremities, chest, presternal area, neck, back, lower extremities, breasts, and abdomen.

In black persons, the descending order of frequency tends to be earlobes, face, neck, lower extremities, breasts, chest, back, and abdomen.


__________________________________


The independent effects of skin tone and facial features on Whites' affective reactions to Blacks

2011

https://msu.edu/~cesario/publications/hagiwara_etal_2012_JESP_independent_effects.pdf


_________________________________


The Cost of Color: Skin Color, Discrimination, and Health among African-Americans

2015

https://scholar.princeton.edu/sites/default/files/emonk/files/monk_-_the_cost_of_color_-_ajs.pdf


__________________________________



To begin addressing racial bias in medicine, start with the skin

July 20, 2020

https://www.statnews.com/2020/07/20/to-begin-addressing-racial-bias-in-medicine-start-with-the-skin/


__________________________________



Which skin colour are you? The human swatch chart that confronts racism

Oct 21, 2015

https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2015/oct/21/pierre-david-nuancier-human-skin-colour-chart


In 1933, in a book called The Masters and the Slaves, the Brazilian anthropologist Gilberto Freyre wrote: “Every Brazilian, even the light-skinned, fair-haired one, carries about him on his soul, when not on soul and body alike, the shadow, or at least the birthmark, of the aborigine or the negro.”

Freyre believed that race was uniquely insignificant in Brazil. Over the centuries, the country’s miscegenation had led to a “meta-race”, he said. To use the term taken up by the country’s political elite, Brazil was, and is, the world’s only and true “racial democracy”.


__________________________________



Beat Those Sleepy Slackers!: Color-Blind Racism in World of Warcraft’s Valley of Trials Warcraft’s Valley of Trials

4-20-2011

https://nsuworks.nova.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1054&context=quadrivium


__________________________________


Orcs, Britons, and the Martial Race Myth, Part II: They're Not Human

June 30, 2019

This is the complement to my previous article, “Orcs, Britons, and the Martial Race Myth, Part I: A Species Built for Racial Terror.” In the previous article, we learned how racist myths from the British academy and army fueled JRR Tolkien’s creation of orcs as an analogue for Asian people. Today I want to look at what happens to orcs as we follow Lord of the Rings’s influence into modern media. When Dungeons & Dragons and its descendants introduced orcs to the United States of America, orcs gained new ethnic dimensions and encountered new and visceral depths of criminalization and dehumanization. In the conclusion to this piece, I suggest several new directions in which gamers of all ethnicities might take the orcs they design or play, to rework this symbol of racist degeneracy into the vanguard of decolonization.

Last time, we started out on the Mongolian steppe and traveled from there to England. This time, we’ll start out with the journey from Britain to America.

https://jamesmendezhodes.com/blog/2019/6/30/orcs-britons-and-the-martial-race-myth-part-ii-theyre-not-human



__________________________________



Racial Differences in Age-Related Variations of Testosterone Levels Among US Males: Potential Implications for Prostate Cancer and Personalized Medication.


https://europepmc.org/article/med/26863244


__________________________________


Serum sex steroids measured in middle-aged European and African–Caribbean men by gas chromatography–massspectrometry

2011

https://eje.bioscientifica.com/view/journals/eje/165/6/917.xml

 

__________________________________


Racial/ethnic differences in serum sex steroid hormone concentrations in US adolescent males

2013

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3850289/


__________________________________


The association between serum uric acid and blood pressure in different age groups in a healthy Chinese cohort

December 2017

https://journals.lww.com/md-journal/fulltext/2017/12150/the_association_between_serum_uric_acid_and_blood.37.aspx


__________________________________

Association of Serum Uric Acid Status With Bone Mineral Density in Adolescents Aged 12–19 Years

June 2020

https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmed.2020.00255/full


__________________________________


Associations of serum uric acid level and gout with cardiac structure, function and sex differences from large scale asymptomatic Asians

July 20, 2020

https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0236173


__________________________________


Serum uric acid levels and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease in Uyghur and Han ethnic groups in northwestern China

2013

https://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0004-27302013000800006

 

__________________________________

Dietary factors are associated with serum uric acid trajectory differentially by race among urban adults

October 2018

https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/british-journal-of-nutrition/article/dietary-factors-are-associated-with-serum-uric-acid-trajectory-differentially-by-race-among-urban-adults/7DA87CD3A68F7B151F116AC09C55E721


__________________________________

 

 Hirsutism, Race and Testosterone Levels: Comparison of East Asians and Euroamericans

1978

https://www.jstor.org/stable/41463058?seq=1

 

__________________________________



Racial variation in sex steroid hormone concentration in black and white men: a meta-analysis

2014

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4327897/


__________________________________


The age-testosterone relationship in black, white, and Mexican-American men, and reasons for ethnic differences

2009

https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13685530903071802

Abstract

Recent studies give contradictory findings regarding testosterone levels in white, black, and Hispanic men. Here, I present a cross-sectional reanalysis of serum testosterone and sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG) in 1637 males, aged 12–90, who participated in the morning examination of the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES III) during the year 1988–1991. Testosterone and SHBG in males are described precisely over the age range 12 to 90 years. Testosterone and SHBG are not notably different in white and Mexican-American (MA) males. In the age range 20–69 years, black men average 0.39 ng/ml higher testosterone than white and MA men (p < 0.001). The higher testosterone in black men is partly explained by low marriage rate and low adiposity.



__________________________________


Large Differences in Testosterone Excretion in Korean and Swedish Men Are Strongly Associated with a UDP-Glucuronosyl Transferase 2B17 Polymorphism

2006

https://academic.oup.com/jcem/article/91/2/687/2843517


__________________________________



Serum Estrogen, But Not Testosterone, Levels Differ between Black and White Men in a Nationally Representative Sample of Americans

July 1, 2007

https://academic.oup.com/jcem/article/92/7/2519/2598282


Abstract

Context: Higher testosterone in black compared with white men has been postulated to explain their higher prostate cancer incidence. Previous studies comparing hormone levels by race might have been limited by size, restricted age variation, or lack of representation of the general population.

Conclusions:

Contrary to the postulated racial difference, testosterone concentrations did not differ notably between black and white men. However, blacks had higher estradiol levels. Mexican-Americans had higher testosterone than whites but similar estradiol and SHBG concentrations. Given these findings, it may be equally if not more important to investigate estradiol as testosterone in relation to diseases with racial disparity.


__________________________________



Correlations between serum testosterone, estradiol, and sex hormone-binding globulin and bone mineral density in a diverse sample of men.

2008

https://europepmc.org/article/pmc/pmc2435644



__________________________________




Racial/Ethnic Differences in Postmenopausal Endogenousv Hormones: The Multiethnic Cohort Study

2006

http://hormonebalance.org/images/documents/Setiawan%20Stanczyk%2006%20Racial%20differences%20hormones%20BCa%20CEBP.pdf


__________________________________


Ethnic Variations In Hormone Levels May Cause Differences In Breast Cancer Risk

October 12, 2006

https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2006/10/061010022350.htm


__________________________________


USC study links ethnicity and estrogen levels to breast cancer risk

October 20, 2006

https://news.usc.edu/20289/USC-study-links-ethnicity-and-estrogen-levels-to-breast-cancer-risk/

 Researchers have known that a woman’s natural hormone levels can affect her risk of developing breast cancer. A new USC study has found that the natural levels of estrogens in post-menopausal women varies by ethnicity and race, and may explain the differences in the two groups’ breast cancer rates.

The study appears in the October issue of Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention.

Using data from the Multiethnic Cohort Study, V. Wendy Setiawan, assistant professor of preventive medicine at the Keck School of Medicine, and her colleagues determined that of the five primary ethnicities/races in the cohort, native Hawaiians have the highest risk of breast cancer—65 percent greater than whites.

They also had some of the highest levels of circulating estrogens.

“We had observed that some groups, such as native Hawaiians, have higher breast cancer rates compared to white women. We knew hormones are a factor, so we decided to test them,” says Setiawan. “The research seems to support that idea.”



__________________________________

 

 Female hormones: do they influence muscle and tendon protein metabolism?


https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/proceedings-of-the-nutrition-society/article/female-hormones-do-they-influence-muscle-and-tendon-protein-metabolism/0D0A155C16C4A640C1C9E6FDAFA973D6/core-reader

 

__________________________________



Race/Ethnicity and Breast Cancer Estrogen Receptor Status: Impact of Class, Missing Data, and Modeling Assumptions

Dec 2008

https://www.jstor.org/stable/40271833?seq=1


__________________________________



Ethnic and racial differences in prostate stromal estrogen receptor α

May 2, 2005

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/pros.20272

 

BACKGROUND

 

Prostate cancer incidence and mortality rates vary widely among individuals of different ethnic/racial groups. We identified a relationship between a subset of genes and race/ethnicity using gene expression profiling. Estrogen receptor α (ERα) was selected for confirmation due to its plausible biological role in cancer susceptibility.

 

METHODS

 

Quantitative polymerase chain reaction (Q‐PCR) was used to verify gene expression results. Protein levels of ERα were determined by quantitative immunohistochemistry in a large‐scale tissue microarray study (n = 183).

 

RESULTS

 

ERα was significantly higher in stroma of Hispanic and Asian men than in Caucasian (P < 0.0001) and African American men (P < 0.0002), who are at higher risk for prostate cancer. In addition, large differences were seen in Q‐PCR levels of ERα in prostate tissues of organ donors 16–29 years old who had no evidence of cancer. 

 

CONCLUSIONS

 

ERα exhibits variable expression in men of difference racial/ethnic background. Understanding the molecular basis for these differences may form the basis for prostate cancer prevention strategies with widespread public health impact.

___________________________________



Racial/Ethnic Differences in 25‐Hydroxy Vitamin D and Parathyroid Hormone Levels and Cardiovascular Disease Risk Among Postmenopausal Women

Feb 15, 2019

https://www.ahajournals.org/jaha/doi/10.1161/JAHA.118.011021


__________________________________

 

 A biopsychosocial model of race differences in vascular reactivity.

2016

https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1993-97773-004

 

__________________________________

Racial differences in central blood pressure and vascular function in young men

December 01, 2008

https://journals.physiology.org/doi/full/10.1152/ajpheart.00902.2008


Abstract

Young African-American men have altered macrovascular and microvascular function. In this cross-sectional study, we tested the hypothesis that vascular dysfunction in young African-American men would contribute to greater central blood pressure (BP) compared with young white men. Fifty-five young (23 yr), healthy men (25 African-American and 30 white) underwent measures of vascular structure and function, including carotid artery intima-media thickness (IMT) and carotid artery β-stiffness via ultrasonography, aortic pulse wave velocity, aortic augmentation index (AIx), and wave reflection travel time (Tr) via radial artery tonometery and a generalized transfer function, and microvascular vasodilatory capacity of forearm resistance arteries with strain-gauge plethysmography. African-American men had similar brachial systolic BP (SBP) but greater aortic SBP (P < 0.05) and carotid SBP (P < 0.05). African-American men also had greater carotid IMT, greater carotid β-stiffness, greater aortic stiffness and AIx, reduced aortic Tr and reduced peak hyperemic, and total hyperemic forearm blood flow compared with white men (P < 0.05). In conclusion, young African-American men have greater central BP, despite comparable brachial BP, compared with young white men. Diffuse macrovascular and microvascular dysfunction manifesting as carotid hypertrophy, increased stiffness of central elastic arteries, heightened resistance artery constriction/blunted resistance artery dilation, and greater arterial wave reflection are present at a young age in apparently healthy African-American men, and conventional brachial BP measurement does not reflect this vascular burden.
African-american men have a greater prevalence of hypertension compared with their white American counterparts. African-American men develop high blood pressure (BP) sooner, and this may manifest as early as their second decade of life. Measurement of central BP has been suggested to hold greater prognostic capability than conventional brachial BP. In end-stage renal disease, carotid BP is a stronger predictor of all-cause mortality than brachial BP. Recent findings from the Strong Heart Study have confirmed that central BP is more strongly related to vascular hypertrophy, extent of atherosclerosis, and cardiovascular events than brachial BP. Moreover, central BP is a better predictor of coronary artery disease severity and adverse cardiovascular events than brachial pressure. Increases in carotid BP directly contribute to increases in carotid intima-media thickness (IMT), a reflection of subclinical vascular target-organ damage and an independent risk factor for cardiovascular disease. At present, no study has examined central BP in young African-American males.

One consequence and/or potential mechanism of hypertension is detrimental alterations in vascular structure and function. Arterial compliance reflects the ability of an artery to expand and recoil in response to cardiac systole and diastole, allowing blood flow to be converted from an intermittent, pulsatile flow to a more steady and laminar flow. Increases in arterial stiffness and loss of this dampening effect may cause microvascular damage and hasten the atherosclerotic process, regardless of age. Consequently, increased arterial stiffness, reduced microvascular reactivity, and increased subclinical atherosclerosis have been identified as risk factors for future cardiovascular events, as well as the development of hypertension.

African-Americans have diffuse macrovascular and microvascular dysfunction manifesting as increased stiffness (reduced compliance) of elastic central arteries, such as the carotid artery and aorta, heightened resistance artery constriction, and blunted resistance artery dilation. The greater vascular stiffness and microvascular dysfunction seen in African-Americans are directly related to target organ damage. Carotid IMT is greater in African-Americans compared with white Americans. Although vascular dysfunction is considered a function of the aging process, “premature arterial senility”  has been reported in normotensive African-American men as young as 21 yr of age.

Central BP is influenced by arterial stiffness and microvascular function. Given the known vascular dysfunction in young African-American men, it is possible that central BP may be greater in African-American men, and changes in central BP may precede changes in peripheral (i.e., brachial) BP in this cohort. Therefore, the primary purpose of this study was to examine racial differences in central BP in young African-American and white men. A secondary purpose was to examine macrovascular and microvascular variables related to central hemodynamics. Several methods were employed in an attempt to provide a comprehensive view of racial differences in vascular structure and function as it relates to central and peripheral hemodynamics.



__________________________________

Neural control of cardiovascular function in black adults: implications for racial differences in autonomic regulation

January 27, 2020

https://journals.physiology.org/doi/abs/10.1152/ajpregu.00091.2019


Abstract

Black adults are at increased risk for developing hypertension and cardiovascular and chronic kidney disease and have greater associated morbidity/mortality than white adults who are otherwise demographically similar. Despite the key role of the autonomic nervous system in the regulation of cardiovascular function, the mechanistic contributions of sympathetic nerves to racial differences in cardiovascular dysfunction and disease remain poorly understood. In this review, we present an update and synthesis of current understanding regarding the roles of autonomic neural mechanisms in normal and pathophysiological cardiovascular control in black and white adults. At rest, many hemodynamic and autonomic variables, including blood pressure, cardiac output, and sympathetic nerve activity, are similar in healthy black and white adults. However, resting sympathetic vascular transduction and carotid baroreflex responses are altered in ways that tend to promote increased vasoconstriction and higher blood pressure, even in healthy, normotensive black adults. Acute sympathoexcitatory maneuvers, including exercise and cold pressor test, often result in augmented sympathetic and hemodynamic responses in healthy black adults. Clinically, although mechanistic evidence is scarce in this area, existing data support the idea that excessive sympathetic activation and/or transduction into peripheral vasoconstriction contribute importantly to the pathophysiology of hypertension and chronic kidney disease in black compared with white adults. Important areas for future work include more detailed study of sympathetic and hemodynamic reactivity to exercise and other stressors in male and female black adults and, particularly, sympathetic control of renal function, an important area of clinical concern in black patients.

 

__________________________________

Ethnic differences in post-menopausal plasmaoestrogen levels: high oestrone levels in Japanese-American women despite low weight

1999

https://www.nature.com/articles/6691082.pdf?origin=ppub



__________________________________




Estrogen-related genes and their contribution to racial differences in breast cancer risk

2012

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3356164/


__________________________________


Racial disparity in estrogen receptor positive breast cancer patients receiving trimodality therapy

2011

https://www.thebreastonline.com/article/S0960-9776(11)00393-6/pdf


__________________________________


Patterns and Trends in Age-Specific Black-White Differences in Breast Cancer Incidence and Mortality – United States, 1999–2014

October 14, 2016

https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/65/wr/mm6540a1.htm


__________________________________



Racial/ethnic disparities in estrogen and progesterone receptor phenotype and survival outcomes.

2014

https://ascopubs.org/doi/abs/10.1200/jco.2014.32.26_suppl.54


Conclusions: For ER/PR phenotypes including ER-/PR- tumors, Asian subgroups showed favorable survival outcomes compared to NHW, while poor outcomes were seen in black

__________________________________



Racial/Ethnic Differences in Sex Hormone Levels among Postmenopausal Women in the Diabetes Prevention Program

2012

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3485611/


__________________________________

Racial differences in sex hormone levels in women approaching the transition to menopause

2000

https://www.fertstert.org/article/S0015-0282(00)01723-4/pdf


__________________________________



Racial differences in body composition and cardiometabolic risk during the menopause transition: a prospective, observational cohort study

2019

https://www.ajog.org/article/S0002-9378(19)31218-9/pdf


__________________________________



Strategies and issues for managing menopause-related symptoms in diverse populations: ethnic and racial diversity

2005

https://www.amjmed.com/article/S0002-9343(05)00906-X/fulltext


__________________________________


Sex Hormone–Binding Globulin and Testosterone in Individuals With Childhood Diabetes

2008

https://care.diabetesjournals.org/content/31/6/1207


__________________________________

Estrogenic activity, race/ethnicity, and Indigenous American ancestry among San Francisco Bay Area women

2019

https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0213809


__________________________________


The age-testosterone relationship in black, white, and Mexican-American men, and reasons for ethnic differences

2009

https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13685530903071802

 

__________________________________


Racial/ethnic variations in male testosterone levels: a probable contributor to group differences in health

1992

https://helmuthnyborg.dk/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/Publ_1992_Racial_Ethnic-variation-in-male-testosterone.pdf

 

__________________________________



Effect of Race/Ethnicity and Smoking on Diurnal Variations in Testosterone Levels

2015

https://clinmedjournals.org/articles/iaecr/international-archives-of-endocrinology-clinical-research-iaecr-1-005.php?jid=iaecr


__________________________________


Estrogen metabolism in the human lung: impact of tumorigenesis, smoke, sex and race/ethnicity

2017

https://www.oncotarget.com/article/22269/text/


ABSTRACT

Previous data from this group demonstrate that the murine lung metabolizes estrogen. Production of the putative carcinogen 4-hydroxyestrogen (4-OHE) is elevated within the lungs of female vs. male mice and accelerated by tobacco smoke. The goal of this study was to determine if the human lung metabolizes estrogen and evaluate the impact of tumor formation, smoke, sex and race/ethnicity on metabolism. Urine and lung tissue (normal, tumor) were obtained from 49 non-small cell lung cancer patients. Healthy postmenopausal Caucasian (n = 19) and Chinese (n = 20) American women (never-smokers) donated urine. Quantitative RT-PCR analyses indicate that multiple estrogen synthesis and metabolism genes are expressed in human bronchoalveolar cells. Estrogen and its metabolites were measured in lung tissue and urine using liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry. Wilcoxon rank tests were used for statistical comparisons. E₁, E₂, E₃ and estrogen metabolites 2-OHE₁, 2-OHE₂, 4-OHE₁, 4-OHE₂, 2-OME₁ and 2-OME₂ were detected at higher levels in tumor vs. adjacent normal tissue and in women vs. men (P < 0.05). The proportion of 4-OHEs was higher in tumors than in normal lung tissue (P < 0.05), and elevated in normal tissue from current- vs. never-smoking women (P = 0.006); similar trends were observed in urine. The proportion of 4-OHEs in the urine of postmenopausal Chinese American women was 1.8-fold higher than that of Caucasian women (P = 0.015). These data indicate that estrogen metabolites are present in the human lung. A shift towards 4-hydroxylation during lung tumorigenesis may contribute to the risk conferred by smoking, sex or race/ethnicity.


__________________________________

Estrogen–gut microbiome axis: Physiological and clinical implications

June 24, 2017

https://www.maturitas.org/article/S0378-5122(17)30650-3/fulltext

 

__________________________________



Estrogen plays different role during stress in black and white teens

June-23-2006

https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2006-06/mcog-epd062306.php


Estrogen seems to play a different role during stress in black and white girls, a difference that may help explain higher cardiovascular disease rates in blacks, researchers have found.


__________________________________

 

 Race Differences in Sexual Behavior: Testing an Evolutionary Hypothesis

1987

https://philipperushton.net/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/Race-Differences-in-Sexual-Behavior-Testing-an-Evolutionary-Hypothesis-1987-by-John-Philippe-Rushton-Anthony-F.-Bogaert.pdf

 

__________________________________

Changes in androstenedione, dehydroepiandrosterone, testosterone, estradiol, and estrone over the menopausal transition

2017

https://womensmidlifehealthjournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40695-017-0028-4

Abstract

Background

Previous reports have noted that dehydroepiandrosterone-sulfate (DHEAS) increases prior to the final menstrual period (FMP) and remains stable beyond the FMP. How DHEAS concentrations correspond with other sex hormones across the menopausal transition (MT) including androstenedione (A4), testosterone (T), estrone (E1), and estradiol (E2) is not known. Our objective was to examine how DHEAS, A4, T, E1, and E2 changed across the MT by White vs. African-American (AA) race/ethnicity.

Conclusion

This report suggests that the declines in E2 during the 4 years before and after the FMP are accompanied by minimal changes in DHEAS, A4, T, and E1. There are modest differences between Whites and AAs and minimal differences by BMI.


__________________________________


Race Differences in Androgens: Do They Mean Anything?

Jan 26, 2016

The Differential-K theory of race may shed more heat than light

https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/unique-everybody-else/201601/race-differences-in-androgens-do-they-mean-anything


__________________________________


Serum Androgen Concentrations in Young Men: A Longitudinal Analysis of Associations with Age, Obesity, and Race. The CARDIA Male Hormone Study

2002

https://cebp.aacrjournals.org/content/cebp/11/10/1041.full.pdf

__________________________________


Racial Differences in Androgen Receptor Protein Expression in Men With Clinically Localized Prostate Cancer

2003

https://www.auajournals.org/doi/abs/10.1097/01.ju.0000079761.56154.e5


Abstract

Purpose:

Black American men experience disproportionate mortality from prostate cancer (CaP) compared with white American men. Differences in outcome may stem from differences within the androgen axis. Since serum testosterone levels appear to be similar by race in men with CaP, we measured and compared androgen receptor (AR) protein expression in malignant and benign prostate tissue from black and white men who underwent radical prostatectomy for clinically localized CaP.

Conclusions:

AR protein expression was 22% higher in the benign prostate and 81% higher in the CaP of black African compared with white men. CaP may occur at a younger age and progress more rapidly in black than in white men due to racial differences in androgenic stimulation of the prostate.



__________________________________


Racial Differences in Age-Related Variations of Testosterone Levels Among US Males: Potential Implications for Prostate Cancer and Personalized Medication

September 2014

https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40615-014-0049-8

Conclusion

Our study revealed that testosterone levels in black males decrease substantially with increasing age compared to those in white males. This rapid drop in testosterone levels may contribute to racial disparities in PCa. Our findings also suggest that personalized medication for hormone replacement therapy may be necessary to avoid sudden drops in testosterone levels, particularly for black males.


__________________________________



Racial Differences in Screening for Prostate Cancer in the Elderly

September 27, 2004

https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamainternalmedicine/fullarticle/217373


__________________________________


Racial Differences in Estrogen Use Among Middle-Aged and Older Women

1998

https://www.whijournal.com/article/S1049-3867(97)00093-5/fulltext


__________________________________

Ethnic differences in regional adipose tissue oestrogen receptor gene expression

2019

https://ec.bioscientifica.com/view/journals/ec/8/1/EC-18-0531.xml


__________________________________


Sex and Gender Differences in Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease

http://www.jnmjournal.org/journal/view.html?doi=10.5056/jnm16138


__________________________________



How much testosterone is really too much for a female athlete?

2019

https://qz.com/africa/1610360/caster-semenya-testosterone-too-high-for-female-athlete-iaaf/


__________________________________



8 Ways Estrogen and Progesterone Affect Your Running

https://www.active.com/running/articles/8-ways-estrogen-and-progesterone-affect-your-running

 __________________________________

 

Optic Disk Size Variability Between African, Asian, Caucasian, Hispanic and Filipino Americans Using Heidelberg Retinal Tomography

2009

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2836908/


Abstract

Purpose

To compare the optic disk size of African, Asian, Caucasian, Hispanic and Filipino American patients in a multiethnic glaucoma practice.

Patients and Methods

576 eyes of 319 patients who had consecutively received Heidelberg Retinal Tomography II (HRT) from February 2006 to October 2007 in a glaucoma clinic that met inclusion criteria were included. The five ethnic groups represented were Caucasian (n = 215, 37.3%), Asian (non-Filipino) (n = 178, 30.8%), African (n = 67, 11.6%), Hispanic (n = 66, 11.4%) and Filipino American (n= 50, 8.7%). The relationships of optic disk size (Global Disc Area) with race, age, gender, diagnosis, central corneal thickness (CCT), spherical equivalent refraction (SE), and cylindrical refraction were evaluated using multivariate regression analysis adjusting for confounders.

Results

Mean optic disk size of Caucasian-Americans (2.15 mm2) was significantly smaller than that of African (2.55 mm2), Asian (2.38 mm2), Filipino (2.48 mm2), and Hispanic Americans (2.57 mm2) (all, P≤0.0007). Global Disk Area was not statistically different between all other races (all, P≥0.054). Global Disk Area increased with SE (P=0.013), but was found to not vary by age, gender, diagnosis, CCT, or cylindrical refraction (all, P≥0.08).

Conclusions

In our glaucoma clinic-based population, Caucasian-Americans had smaller optic disks than all other races, and there were no optic disk size differences among the other races studied. Optic disk size had no significant relationship to age, gender, CCT, cylindrical refraction or diagnosis, and a small direct relationship to SE. Confirmation of these results in a population-based study is needed.


__________________________________

Racial and Ethnic Differences in Ocular Anatomy

2003

https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Racial-and-Ethnic-Differences-in-Ocular-Anatomy-Blake-Lai/b5be0d352e0edef7491223e621fcc327a37a322a

Differences in eyelid structure are well described in the literature with respect to the Asian eyelid, but discussion of differences in eyelid structure between the other races is scarce. Most of the literature focuses on distinctions between “double” and “single” eyelids. Other clinical and surgical considerations are the presence of epicanthi and palpebral fissure slant. By understanding racial and ethnic anatomical differences, oculoplastic surgeons will be able to optimize function and aesthetics. Asians may have fuller, thicker-appearing upper eyelids with an absent or relatively lower upper lid (supratarsal) fold, making the distinction between the single and double eyelid (Figs 1, 2). The orbital septum of Asians fuses with the levator palpebrae aponeurosis at variable distances below the superior tarsal border, closer to the eyelid margin than in non-Asians. This hinders aponeurotic fibers from the levator palpebrae superioris from reaching the subcutaneous tissues, prohibiting the creating of a double eyelid crease. The fusion is above the superior tarsal...

__________________________________

Eye Color and its Possible Relation to Behavior

1977

https://stars.library.ucf.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https://startpage.com/&httpsredir=1&article=1342&context=rtd

Tabel of Contents

Section 1. The Activity of the Eye
Section 2. Eye Color and Athletic Ability
Section 3. medical Research Involved with Eye Color
Section 4. Eye Color, Learning, Perceptions, and susceptibility to Illusions
Section 5. Eye Color and Sociability
Section 6. Possible Hypotheses



__________________________________



Effects of Age, Race, and Ethnicity on the Optic Nerve and Peripapillary Region Using Spectral-Domain OCT 3D Volume Scans

November 2018

https://tvst.arvojournals.org/article.aspx?articleid=2716804


__________________________________

 

Racial Differences in the Association between Optic Disc Topography and Early Glaucoma

August 2003

https://iovs.arvojournals.org/article.aspx?articleid=2200212



Abstract

purpose. To determine the structural characteristics of the optic disc that are associated with early glaucoma in African Americans and whites and whether these characteristics differ between the races.

methods. Parameters of optic disc topography from 260 African American eyes and 193 white eyes were included in the analysis. One hundred forty-four eyes of African Americans and 109 eyes of normal white subjects were used as a control group. Logistic regression was used to calculate the association between early glaucoma, defined by the visual field, and cup, rim, and disc margin confocal scanning laser ophthalmoscopic (CSLO) parameters, using odds ratios at binary cut points. The cup, rim, and disc margin parameters identified as being independently associated with glaucoma in these reduced models were then included in a single multivariate model. Optic disc area was included in the analysis at each level of the model. This approach was used for the total study group and then separately for the African American and white groups.

results. When accounting for difference in optic disc area, rim area had the highest independent association with early glaucoma in both groups, but this association was lower in African Americans (odds ratio [95% confidence interval]: 1.63 [1.12–2.36]) than in whites (odds ratio: 4.74 [2.18–10.28]). Additional independently associated parameters included cup shape, maximum elevation along the contour line, and the temporal-to-inferior contour line modulation ratio in whites and cup shape and the temporal-to-superior contour line modulation ratio in African Americans.

conclusions. Structural characteristics of the optic disc that are best associated with early glaucoma included cup shape and rim area in both groups, but with a less pronounced association in African Americans. In addition, several other race-specific parameters that were independently associated with early glaucoma differed significantly between African Americans and whites. These race-specific differences were independent from the effect of optic disc area.




__________________________________

Differences in optic nerve structure between individuals of predominantly African and European ancestry: Implications for disease detection and pathogenesis

2008

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2698719/


__________________________________

Racial Differences in the Optic Nerve

2004

https://glaucomatoday.com/articles/2004-nov-dec/1104_04.html


__________________________________


Differences in Visual Function and Optic Nerve Structure Between Healthy Eyes of Blacks and Whites

2005

https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamaophthalmology/fullarticle/417347



__________________________________

Racial Differences in Retinal Vessel Geometric Characteristics: A Multiethnic Study in Healthy Asians

May 2013

https://iovs.arvojournals.org/article.aspx?articleid=2189808


Abstract

Purpose.: To investigate potential racial/ethnic differences in retinal vascular geometric parameters in a multiethnic Asian population (Chinese, Malay, and Indian) free of clinical diseases.

 

Methods.: A series of retinal vascular parameters were measured from retinal photographs using a computer-assisted program following a standardized protocol. Healthy participants were defined as nonsmokers, the absence of diabetes mellitus, uncontrolled hypertension, obesity, stroke, heart disease, glaucoma, and retinopathy.

 

Results.: There were significant differences in measurements of retinal vascular caliber, tortuosity, and fractal dimension among the three ethnic groups. In multiple linear regression model controlling for age, sex, body mass index, systolic blood pressure, cholesterol, and glucose levels, Indians had the largest arteriolar and venular calibers (arterioles [SE]: 158.94 μm [1.00]; venules: 228.26 μm [1.53]), followed by Malays (arterioles: 138.31 μm [0.74]; venules: 204.26 μm [1.13]), and then Chinese (arterioles: 131.20 μm [0.84]; venules: 195.09 μm [1.28]). Chinese had the largest arteriolar and venular tortuosity (arterioles [× 105]: 7.20 [0.08] venules [× 105]: 9.09 [0.10]), and venular fractal dimension (1.244 [0.003]). There were no statistically significant differences in other retinal vascular parameters after correcting multiple comparisons by the method of modified false discovery rate. 

 

Conclusions.: We found that among ethnic groups composed of healthy Chinese, Malay, and Indians, there were statistically significant differences in several retinal parameters. There exist racial influences in retinal vascular parameters and other yet unknown or unmeasured environmental factor or lifestyle habits and genetic variations not related to race that may also contribute to these differences.

__________________________________



Cataract Extraction Rates Among Chinese, Malays, and Indians in SingaporeA Population-Based Analysis

May 2001

https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamaophthalmology/fullarticle/266320


__________________________________



Vision Health Disparities in the United States by Race/Ethnicity, Education, and Economic Status: Findings From Two Nationally Representative Surveys

2011

https://www.cdc.gov/visionhealth/pdf/7-vision-health-disparities-us.pdf

__________________________________

 

Racial/Ethnic Disparities in Self-Rated Health Status Among Adults With and Without Disabilities -- United States, 2004 -- 2006

October 3, 2008

https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5739a1.htm

 

__________________________________


Prevalence of Vision Disorders by Racial and Ethnic Group among Children Participating in Head Start

2013

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4128179/


Results

Overall, 86.5% of children invited to participate were examined, including 2072 African-American, 343 American Indian (323 from Oklahoma), 145 Asian, 796 Hispanic, and 481 non-Hispanic white children. The prevalence of any vision disorder was 21.4% and was similar across groups (P = 0.40), ranging from 17.9% (American Indian) to 23.3% (Hispanic). Prevalence of amblyopia was similar among all groups (P = 0.07), ranging from 3.0% (Asian) to 5.4% (non-Hispanic white). Prevalence of strabismus also was similar (P = 0.12), ranging from 1.0% (Asian) to 4.6% (non-Hispanic white). Prevalence of hyperopia >3.25 diopter (D) varied (P = 0.007), with the lowest rate in Asians (5.5%) and highest in non-Hispanic whites (11.9%). Prevalence of anisometropia varied (P = 0.009), with the lowest rate in Asians (2.7%) and highest in Hispanics (7.1%). Myopia >2.00 D was relatively uncommon (<2.0%) in all groups with the lowest rate in American Indians (0.2%) and highest rate in Asians (1.9%). Prevalence of astigmatism >1.50 D varied (P = 0.01), with the lowest rate among American Indians (4.3%) and highest among Hispanics (11.1%).
Conclusions

Among Head Start preschool children, the prevalence of amblyopia and strabismus was similar among 5 racial/ethnic groups. Prevalence of significant refractive errors, specifically hyperopia, astigmatism, and anisometropia, varied by group, with the highest rate of hyperopia in non-Hispanic whites, and the highest rates of astigmatism and anisometropia in Hispanics.


__________________________________

 

6 Rare and Unique Eye Colors

Apr 10, 2019

https://owlcation.com/stem/rare-eye-colors?li_source=LI&li_medium=m2m-rcw-owlcation---education


Can You Permanently Change Your Eye Color?

There is a way to make your brown eyes blue. A controversial laser surgery can remove the melanin in your eye, resulting in a clearer stroma that allows Rayleigh scattering, so your eyes look blue. Some doctor’s use silicone implants to permanently change eye color. Either way, there are significant risks involved.

There are risks with this permanent change, as there are with most surgeries. One risk is the melanin can potentially cause blockages to the fluid draining from the eye causing excess pressure, or glaucoma. A silicone implant can also create a blockage and increased pressure in the eye causing inflammation and damage to the structures of the eye. Patient’s have been rendered wholly or partially blind as a result of these surgeries.

Doctor’s have reported that many people who want to change their eye color had a friend or sibling who was constantly complimented on their light eye color. In those cases, doctor’s suggest confronting those feelings through therapy rather than undergoing risky surgery.

If you want to change your eye color, your best and safest bet is to be fitted for color contacts by a licensed Ophthalmologist.



__________________________________


Does Eye Color Indicate Intelligence or Personality? What Are Your Eyes Telling the World?

Nov 17, 2018

https://owlcation.com/stem/Does-eye-color-indicate-intelligence-and-personality-traits?li_source=LI&li_medium=m2m-rcw-owlcation---education


__________________________________



Anthropometric analysis of eyebrows and eyelids: An inter-racial study

May 2006

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/7805173_Anthropometric_analysis_of_eyebrows_and_eyelids_An_inter-racial_study



__________________________________


Aesthetic analysis of the ideal eyebrow shape and position

October 28, 2014

https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00405-014-3356-0


__________________________________

Eyebrow Height Changes with Aging: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

September 2019

https://journals.lww.com/prsgo/fulltext/2019/09000/eyebrow_height_changes_with_aging__a_systematic.1.aspx


__________________________________


The a-b Dermatoglyphic Ridge Breadth: AnIndication of Developmental Significance

1981

https://trace.tennessee.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https://startpage.com/&httpsredir=1&article=5721&context=utk_gradthes


__________________________________



The Lateral Brow: Position in relation to age, gender and ethnicity

2014

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4114322/



__________________________________

Eyebrow and Eyelid Dimensions: An Anthropometric Analysis of African Americans and Caucasians

September 2009

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/26706920_Eyebrow_and_Eyelid_Dimensions_An_Anthropometric_Analysis_of_African_Americans_and_Caucasians


__________________________________

Anthropometric analysis of eyebrows and eyelids: An inter-racial study

2005

https://www.bjoms.com/article/S0266-4356(05)00096-3/abstract


__________________________________

 

Ethnic characteristics of eyelashes: a comparative analysis in Asian and Caucasian females

January, 2007

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/6691149_Ethnic_characteristics_of_eyelashes_a_comparative_analysis_in_Asian_and_Caucasian_females


__________________________________


Eyelash Types and Genetics

Sep 05, 2019

Hate your lashes? We can explain. Genetics could be responsible for the type of eyelashes you have

https://www.reviewthis.com/eyelash-types-and-genetics/


__________________________________

Why do Caucasians and Indians have longer eyelashes/thicker eyebrows than Asians?

https://www.quora.com/Why-do-Caucasians-and-Indians-have-longer-eyelashes-thicker-eyebrows-than-Asians

__________________________________

The eyelash follicle features and anomalies: A review

October-December 2018

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1888429618300487

 

__________________________________


Eyelashes Grow To Just The Right Length To Shield Eyes

February 25, 2015

https://www.npr.org/sections/health-shots/2015/02/25/389005192/eyelashes-grow-to-just-the-right-length-to-shield-eyes

 

__________________________________


A study of normal eyelashes in Japanese individuals

https://www.oatext.com/A-study-of-normal-eyelashes-in-Japanese-individuals.php#gsc.tab=0


__________________________________


POSTCRANIAL OSTEOMETRIC ASSESSMENT OF KOREAN ANCESTRY


https://sciences.ucf.edu/anthropology/wp-content/uploads/sites/19/2013/09/Okrutny_Elizabeth.pdf


__________________________________


The 'fox eye' beauty trend continues to spread online. But critics insist it's racist

August 11, 2020

https://www.cnn.com/style/article/fox-eye-trend-asian-cultural-appropriation-trnd/index.html

 

__________________________________

Normative Values of Retinal Nerve Fibre Layer Thickness and Optic Nerve Head Parameters and Their Association with Visual Function in an African Population

2019

https://www.hindawi.com/journals/joph/2020/7150673/

 

__________________________________


25 Beauty Struggles Asian Girls Go Through

May 7, 2015

https://www.buzzfeed.com/cathyngo/why-do-my-eyelashes-point-down

 

__________________________________

Blepharitis

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blepharitis


Blepharitis is one of the most common ocular conditions characterized by inflammation, scaling, reddening, and crusting of the eyelid. This condition may also cause burning, itching, or a grainy sensation when introducing foreign objects or substances to the eye. Although blepharitis is not sight-threatening, it can lead to permanent alterations of the eyelid margin. The overall etiology is a result of bacteria and inflammation from congested meibomian oil glands at the base of each eyelash. Other conditions may give rise to blepharitis, whether they be infectious or noninfectious, including, but not limited to, bacterial infections or allergies.

Different variations of blepharitis can be classified as seborrheic, staphylococcal, mixed, posterior or meibomitis, or parasitic. In a survey of US ophthalmologists and optometrists, 37% to 47% of patients seen by those surveyed had signs of blepharitis, which can affect all ages and ethnic groups. One single-center study of 90 patients with chronic blepharitis found that the average age of patients was 50 years old.

__________________________________

Doctors warn about dangers and spread of eyelash lice

2019

https://abc7.com/lash-lice-due-to-eyelash-extensions-how-protect-eyelashes-from-demodex/5699244/

 

_____________________________________

_____________________________________

__________________________________

__________________________________

__________________________________


Section 7: Ears & Genetics

__________________________________

__________________________________

__________________________________

_____________________________________

_____________________________________

Earlobe Type, Race, and Age: Effects on Earlobe Creasing

August 1983

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1532-5415.1983.tb05121.x


__________________________________

Earlobe type, race, and age: effects on earlobe creasing

1983

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/6875152/


Abstract

There has been much discussion of the utility and validity of the earlobe crease as a warning sign of cardiovascular disease. The authors postulated that the mixed findings were due to the neglect of three variables: age, race, and earlobe shape. Age and earlobe shape were studied in 324 healthy adult subjects from three racial groups: southwestern Alaskan Eskimos (70), Navajos (167), and whites (87). It was found that creases develop with age in healthy adults, that creasing is related to earlobe shape, that the age of onset of creasing varies according to race, and that the frequencies of occurrence of different earlobe shapes differ by race. Future studies of earlobe creases should therefore include the variables of age, race, and earlobe shape.



__________________________________

Numerous genes shape ear lobes

2017

https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-017-07792-7


Global data set reveals the complex genetic basis of ear-lobe attachment.


Hundreds of genes influence whether ear lobes dangle or are attached at the base.

Ear-lobe attachment was once proffered as a textbook example of a trait controlled by a single gene. A new study provides the most detailed evidence so far refuting it.

Sijia Wang at the Chinese Academy of Sciences in Shanghai, Seth Weinberg at the University of Pittsburgh in Pennsylvania and their colleagues used genetic-sequencing data and ear-lobe observations from 74,660 people with European, Latin American or Chinese ancestry. The team identified 49 genome regions related to the trait, and then sequenced genes expressed in the ears of mouse and human fetuses, including genes affected by most of the regions identified in adults.

Better understanding the genes regulating ear lobes could help to treat developmental abnormalities of the ear, jaw and mouth.

__________________________________


How Your Genes Shape Your Ear Lobes

http://www.earhelp.co.uk/genes-shape-ear-lobes.html


__________________________________

Do your ears hang low? The complex genetics behind earlobe attachment

November 30, 2017

https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2017/11/171130141155.htm


Using just the information from the smaller group of 10,000 participants, the researchers were able to identify six genes that played roles in earlobe attachment. When the analysis was broadened to include the 23andMe participants, those six genes were again strongly implicated in earlobe attachment, but another 43 genes were added.

"So do we put our resources toward careful and rigorous study of a smaller set of individuals or is it better to get less detail, but recruit a lot more study participants?" said Shaffer. "In our study, we unite both of these approaches, and we see that using the bigger group gave us all the results of the smaller study, plus a whole lot more."

The results don't mean that grade school science teachers should stop using traits like earlobes to teach genetics. But the lesson needs to be updated to show that even a seemingly simple inherited trait, such as earlobe attachment, involves a complex and fascinating interplay of genes that geneticists are only beginning to understand, said co-author Eleanor Feingold, Ph.D., professor of human genetics and biostatistics at Pitt Public Health.

"We've got these 49 genes that we know affect earlobe attachment, but we don't know how they work together or interact with one another," said Feingold, also senior associate dean at Pitt Public Health. "Figuring that out is the next step."



__________________________________

Earlobe Creases Predict Prognosis in Chinese Patients With Acute Myocardial Infarction (ELC-CHN)

2015

https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT02618681


__________________________________

Diagonal earlobe crease and coronary artery disease in Iranian population: A marker for evaluating coronary risk


2014

http://www.indianjotol.org/article.asp?issn=0971-7749;year=2014;volume=20;issue=4;spage=208;epage=210;aulast=Montazeri


Abstract        

Background: The diagonal earlobe crease (DELC) has been proposed to be a marker of coronary artery disease (CAD), but this association remains controversial. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the frequency of DELC in patients with CAD. Materials and Methods: One hundred patients with angiographically documented CAD from Tehran Heart Center were evaluated for the presence or absence of ELC. The ELC was said to be present if a patient had a deep diagonal crease extending obliquely from the outer ear canal toward the border of the earlobe without discontinuity covering at least two-thirds of the earlobe length. Results: The prevalence of ELC was 62% (95% confidence interval 59.7-64.6). The frequency of smoking and hyperlipidemia was significantly higher in patients with DELC (P = 0.024 and P = 0.001, respectively). However, frequency of hypertension and diabetes were not significantly different between the two groups. Conclusion: The frequency of DELC in patients with CAD was high in our study. The data suggest that the ELC sign may be a useful marker for the presence of CAD in patients.

__________________________________

DISTRIBUTION OF EARLOBE PATTERN IN INDIA

1962

https://www.jstor.org/stable/26295004


__________________________________

Analysis of morphometric and somatoscopic traits of auricle of ear in India: Relation with diversified ethnicities

2019

http://www.jecajournal.org/article.asp?issn=1596-2393;year=2019;volume=18;issue=1;spage=1;epage=5;aulast=Maitreyee


__________________________________



Morphological Variations and Biometrics of Ear: An Aid to Personal Identification.

2016

http://europepmc.org/article/PMC/4948525


__________________________________


Race/ethnicity differences in the prevalence of noise-induced hearing loss in a group of metal fabricating workers

1998

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9729747/


__________________________________


Association of Skin Color, Race/Ethnicity, and Hearing Loss Among Adults in the USA

Feb 2012

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3254716/


__________________________________

Examining the Relationship Between Race and Hearing Loss

February 2, 2016

https://hearinghealthfoundation.org/blogs/examining-the-relationship-between-race-and-hearing-loss



__________________________________



Racial Considerations in Acoustic Neuroma Removal with Hearing Preservation via the Retrosigmoid Approach

1995

https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.3109/00016489509139402



__________________________________



Race Difference in Auditory Sensitivity

1964

https://pubs.asha.org/doi/10.1044/jshr.0704.389


__________________________________

Antibiotic Overuse May Result from Racial Disparities in Ear Infection Treatment

Dec 26, 2014

https://www.hearingreview.com/hearing-loss/hearing-loss-prevention/racial-disparities-ear-infection-treatment-may-contribute-antibiotic-overuse


__________________________________



Comparison of some Morphometric Parameters of the Ear on Turkish and African Students

2017

https://www.alliedacademies.org/articles/comparison-of-some-morphometric-parameters-of-the-ear-on-turkish-and-african-students.html


__________________________________



Spontaneous Otoacoustic Emissions in Different Racial Groups

1991

https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.3109/01050399309046012


__________________________________


Racial and ethnic differences in how people use mobile technology

April 30, 2015

https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2015/04/30/racial-and-ethnic-differences-in-how-people-use-mobile-technology/


__________________________________

The human race is gradually losing its hearing

March 28, 2020

The world is louder than ever, with one in six of us now suffering from hearing loss. Guy Kelly looks into why.

Many people are exacerbating the strain on their ears by listening to loud music or watching videos on smartphones.

https://www.telegraph.co.uk/health-fitness/body/human-race-gradually-losing-hearing/



__________________________________



Are Ear Infections Overtreated in White Children?

2014

https://healthcare.utah.edu/publicaffairs/news/2014/11/11-17-14-%20Ear-infections-race-antibiotic-overuse.php

Black children are less likely to be diagnosed with and less likely to receive broad-spectrum antibiotics for ear infections than white children are, a new study has found. But the discrepancy in prescribing fewer broad-spectrum antibiotics means black children actually are more likely to receive care that aligns with the recommended guidelines for treating ear infections.


__________________________________


Study: Black Children Are Less Likely to Be Prescribed Antibiotics Than Children of Other Races

March 22, 2013

Doctors were less likely to diagnose and treat black children with antibiotics for respiratory infections, compared to their non-black peers.

https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2013/03/study-black-children-are-less-likely-to-be-prescribed-antibiotics-than-children-of-other-races/274261/




__________________________________




Why is Asian earwax different from black and white people’s earwax?

May 25, 2018

https://www.straightdope.com/21344485/why-is-asian-earwax-different-from-black-and-white-people-s-earwax


__________________________________


Why are different races correlated with two different types of earwax, and when did this divergence occur?

May 25, 2018

https://www.chicagoreader.com/chicago/straight-dope-ear-wax-color-consistency/Content?oid=48794242


__________________________________


Ethnic/Racial and Genetic Influences on Cerumen Odorant Profiles

2015

https://www.med.upenn.edu/gricelab/assets/user-content/documents/Papers/2015/Ethnic:racial%20and%20genetic%20influences%20on%20cerumen%20odorant%20profile.Journal%20of%20Chemical%20Ecology.pdf


__________________________________


So, everyone in my family has attached earlobes yet I came out with unattached earlobes. Why is that?

August 4, 2010

https://genetics.thetech.org/ask/ask372

__________________________________


Associations between ethnicity, place of residence, hearing status of family and habilitation of children with hearing impairment

July 13, 2020

https://ijhpr.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s13584-020-00394-1


__________________________________




The Ancient History of Ear Stretching


https://www.urbanbodyjewelry.com/the-history-of-ear-stretching


__________________________________

What Your Ears Say About Your Heart

June 29, 2011

https://www.everydayhealth.com/heart-health/what-your-ears-say-about-your-heart.aspx

 

__________________________________

Earlobe Crease And Heart Disease: Is It Real? Review Of Evidence

https://joe-cannon.com/earlobe-crease-heart-disease-review/


__________________________________

New calculations expose racial differences for inherited high cholesterol

In a study published recently in the journal Circulation, investigators estimate FH affects about 834,500 American adults and impacts racial and ethnic groups differently. It is most common among blacks and whites and, by comparison, half as common among Mexican-Americans.

 

 

https://newsarchive.heart.org/new-calculations-expose-racial-differences-inherited-high-cholesterol/

 

_____________________________________

_____________________________________

__________________________________

__________________________________

__________________________________


Section 8: Lips & Genetics

__________________________________

__________________________________

__________________________________

_____________________________________

_____________________________________

Race Plays Huge Role in Cleft Lip/Palate Deformities

December 27, 2018

https://www.voanews.com/science-health/race-plays-huge-role-cleft-lippalate-deformities


__________________________________


 Cleft lip with cleft palate by race/ethnicity: New York, 2012-2016 Average

https://www.marchofdimes.org/PeriStats/ViewSubtopic.aspx?reg=36&top=16&stop=488&lev=1&slev=4&obj=1


    During 2012-2016 (average) in New York, Cleft lip with cleft palate was highest for American Indian infants (15.2 in 10,000 live births), followed by Hispanics (5.0 in 10,000 live births), whites (4.7 in 10,000 live births), Asians (4.3 in 10,000 live births) and blacks (2.6 in 10,000 live births).
    During 2012-2016 (average) in New York, 4.4 in 10,000 live births were born with Cleft lip with cleft palate.



__________________________________


Racial and Ethnic Differences in the Occurrence of Major Birth Defects


https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/birthdefects/features/racialethnicdifferences.html


The American Journal of Public Health published a new study that examined the occurrence of major birth defects across multiple racial and ethnic groups. Using 12 state-based birth defects tracking systems, this is to date the largest study conducted to look at racial and ethnic differences in the United States for a range of birth defects.

Read the abstract for the study hereexternal icon.
Main Findings from this Study

    Compared with non-Hispanic whites, American Indians/Alaska Natives had a significantly higher occurrence of:
        Anotia/Microtia (ear defects)
        Cleft lip with or without cleft palate
        Trisomy 18
        Encephalocele (serious defect of the skull and brain)
        Limb deficiency (when part or all of the arm or leg fails to form completely during pregnancy)
    Cubans and Asians, especially Chinese and Asian Indians, had significantly lower occurrence of many of the studied birth defects, compared to non-Hispanic whites.
    Some of the studied birth defects had very different rates of occurrence across the racial and ethnic groups (either much higher or much lower occurrence compared to non-Hispanic whites). Conditions that showed substantial variation across the racial and ethnic groups include anotia/microtia, spina bifida (a defect of the spine), and Down syndrome.
    The researchers recommend further investigation to determine why there appeared to be a relatively high occurrence of certain birth defects in American Indians/Alaska Natives.

Birth defects that have significantly higher or lower occurrence in selected racial and ethnic groups, compared to non-Hispanic white:


__________________________________


Cleft lip with or without cleft palate: Frequency in different ethnic populations from the UCSF craniofacial clinic

August 28, 2007

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ajmg.a.31922


__________________________________


Evaluating Occurrence of Variable Cleft Lip and Palate Types Among Ethnic Groups of Malaysia

March 28, 2018

http://www.jpda.com.pk/evaluating-occurrence-of-variable-cleft-lip-and-palate-types-among-ethnic-groups-of-malaysia-2/


OBJECTIVE:

The objective was to assess the distribution of types of cleft lip and palate (CLP) among different racial groups living in Malaysia.

METHODOLOGY: This study was carried out in two tertiary care hospitals of Malaysia, during August 2007 to March 2009. Total 526 CLP patients registered in the hospital records during the study period were included. The Modified Craniofacial Anomalies Registration (CARE) form was used to collect data of different types of oral clefts in relation to race among Malaysian.

RESULTS: Of the total 526 patients registered in the study hospital records during the study period. Majority (86.7%) of these patients were in the age group < 18years, most (56.7%) of them were females. The racial distribution of patients was 88.6 % Malays, 8.7 % Chinese, 2.5 % Indian and 0.2% others. The right side oral cleft was found in 96.1% of Malay study subjects and 3.9 % Chinese. Among Chinese ethnic participants, majority (52 %) had bilateral oral cleft. Overall data indicates hard palate cleft was present in 3.7% Malay, 4.6% Chinese, and 23% Indian study participants. However, soft plate cleft was present in 4 % Malay and 7.6% Indian. Among ethnic groups 92% of Malay patients, 95% of Chinese and 69% of Indian had hard and soft palate cleft.

__________________________________

Three-dimensional morphology of first molars in relation to ethnicity and the occurrence of cleft lip and palate

October 9, 2017

https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0185472


Abstract

Objectives

This study aims to describe morphological peculiarities of maxillary and mandibular first molars in Europeans, Asians and Europeans with cleft lip and palate.
Material and methods

Reflex microscopy was used to obtain three-dimensional morphometric landmarks from 40 models (11 Europeans and 13 Asians without cleft lip and palate, 16 Europeans with unilateral cleft lip and palate). The cases were examined using traditional morphometry and geometric morphometry, and visualized using thin-plate splines.
Results

Classic morphometry showed no right/left differences in the study groups and no significant differences with regard to the cleft side in patients with cleft lip and palate. In Asians, a significantly greater mesiodistal width was found. Geometric morphometry showed an enlarged centroid size in Asians (maxilla and mandible). In cleft patients, the cleft site did not appear to impact the morphology of first molars.
Conclusion

Unilateral clefting did not affect the size and shape of molars; however, characteristic ethnicity-based differences were in fact identified. The results are relevant for orthodontic treatment with preadjusted appliances, and prosthetic CAD/CAM restorations.



__________________________________

Ethnic differences in upper lip response to incisor retraction

June 2005

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15953893/



Abstract

Introduction: The purpose of this retrospective longitudinal study was to investigate the response of the upper lip to incisor retraction and to ascertain the effect of ethnicity on this response.

Methods: Pretreatment and posttreatment lateral cephalograms of 88 postpubertal female patients (44 black and 44 white; mean age, 18.45 years) were evaluated. The groups were matched by age and the amount of incisor retraction at incisor superius.

Results: Although significant pretreatment differences existed between the groups in some cephalometric measurements, analysis of the treatment changes demonstrated significant differences only in incisor inclination. Hard and soft tissue changes of the black group were more downward, whereas changes in the white group were more backward. Multivariate regression analysis showed that the horizontal response of the upper lip to hard tissue changes at subnasale and superior labial sulcus was different in whites than in blacks. At subnasale, stepwise multivariate regression analysis showed that ethnicity contributed to the upper lip response to incisor retraction and was significantly greater in the white group.

Conclusions: The hard and soft tissue treatment changes of the black group were more downward, and those of the white group were more backward. Ethnic differences exist in the soft tissue response to hard tissue changes in the upper lip, and at subnasale and the superior labial sulcus; however, these response differences at superior labial sulcus can be explained by the ethnic differences in initial lip thickness and incisor inclination; they are not due in and of themselves to ethnicity. The change at prosthion was significantly correlated with the response of the upper lip at labrale superius to incisor retraction. Ethnicity added no increase to the predictability of the response. When incisor retraction was performed, the final horizontal upper lip position could be accurately and reliably predicted.




__________________________________



Evaluation of Horizontal Lip Position in Adults with Different Skeletal Patterns: A Cephalometric Study

2017

https://www.heighpubs.org/johcs/johcs-aid1005.php


__________________________________


‘Why do white people have thin lips?’ Google and the perpetuation of stereotypes via auto-complete search forms

2012

https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/10.1080/17405904.2012.744320


__________________________________


Comparison of White and Chinese perception of esthetic Chinese lip position

August 05 2013

https://meridian.allenpress.com/angle-orthodontist/article/84/2/246/98399/Comparison-of-White-and-Chinese-perception-of

ABSTRACT

Objective:

To compare the esthetic preference of White and Chinese judges with regard to Chinese lip position.
Materials and Methods:

The profile images of a dental and skeletal Class I Chinese adult male and female were digitally adjusted to Chinese mean values. The lip profile was adjusted with the upper and lower lip at the mean distance from the Ricketts' E-line. These images were used as baseline images and were further digitally manipulated to generate six additional images with the upper and lower lip such that they lay 0.5, 1.0, and 2.0 standard deviations (SDs) in front of or behind the E-line. An additional image was modified based on a White mean value. The images were viewed and ranked by 251 White and Chinese judges (dentists and laypersons) in Australia and China.
Results:

Significantly more Chinese judges ranked the retrusive profiles higher than the White judges. The White judges also ranked the profile image adjusted to −0.5 SD as the most esthetic for both the female and male, while the Chinese judges ranked the −1.0 SD profile as the most esthetic.
Conclusions:

The ethnicity of the judges is a significant factor influencing the perception of esthetic lip position. The Chinese judges prefer a more retrusive profile and are more likely to rate a protrusive profile as unacceptable, compared with the White judges.


__________________________________

Variations in Morphological Patterns of Lip Prints as Evidence in Racialand Sexual Discrimination

2020

https://www.hilarispublisher.com/open-access/variations-in-morphological-patterns-of-lip-prints-as-evidence-in-racial-and-sexual-discrimination.pdf


__________________________________


Study of lip prints in different ethno-racial groups in India

2017

https://go.gale.com/ps/anonymous?id=GALE%7CA511608102&sid=googleScholar&v=2.1&it=r&linkaccess=fulltext&issn=09709290&p=HRCA&sw=w


__________________________________


Comparative evaluation of lip prints among Indian and African students

2018

http://www.sjfms.org/article.asp?issn=2589-8329;year=2018;volume=1;issue=1;spage=14;epage=18;aulast=Gunasekaran


__________________________________



A comparison of lip prints between Aryans-Dravidians and Mongols

2011

http://www.ijdr.in/article.asp?issn=0970-9290;year=2011;volume=22;issue=5;spage=664;epage=668;aulast=Prasad


__________________________________

Cheiloplasty: Ethnic Differences, Aesthetic Perceptions, Techniques and Approaches in Lip Augmentation

https://www.ifaas.co/single-post/Cheiloplasty-Ethnic-Differences-Aesthetic-Perceptions-Techniques-and-Approaches-in-Lip-Augmentation

Ethnic Differences: Asian vs. Caucasian

As cheiloplasty become increasingly popular, a performing surgeon must take into account ethnic differences, as it plays an important role, not just in terms of facial dimensions and proportion, but in the evaluation and perception of beauty as well.

Although it is generally thought that the ideal vertical height ratio of upper to lower lip is the well-documented 1:1.6, this suggested “ideal” ratio is based on literatures referring to Caucasian anthropometric measurements, without consideration for other factors. In fact, many studies have been conducted, and results show that the perception of a perfect lip measurement differ not just between the general ethnicity such as Asians and Caucasians, but also amongst sub-ethnicities such as Chinese and Korean.

 

Studies have also shown that Caucasian women were found to have thinner lips than Asians, with the smallest upper lip height and volume. While comparing sub-ethnicities such as Korean and Chinese women; the former have a higher ratio of upper lip to lower lip, while the latter, a thicker lower lip and greater upper lip volume.

In terms of measurement, Chinese women were found to have a mean ratio of 1:1.25 when measured both by caliper and surface distance for the upper lip (measured from the midline of the upper lip vermilion border) to lower lip height ratio, while Korean women were found to have a ratio of 1:1.11 when measured by caliper and 1:1.25 when measured by surface distance. Caucasian women, however, have the smallest ratio at 1:1.43, as when measured both by caliper and surface distance.

Similarly, Caucasian women were found to have an overall lip index between 50 and 100, while Asian women had a lip index between 100 and 200 - because a larger lip index correlates with fuller lips, the study suggested that Asian women have fuller lips on average than Caucasian women.


__________________________________



Comparison of aesthetic facial criteria between Caucasian and East Asian female populations: An esthetic surgeon's perspective

January 2018

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1015958416301798


__________________________________


Looking at faces from different angles: Europeans fixate different features in Asian and Caucasian faces

July 2014

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0042698914000984


__________________________________



Beauty Analysis and Facial Aesthetics

#4-3. Racial and Ethnic Difference of Beauty

January 29, 2015

http://idnps.com/clinical/beauty-analysis-and-facial-aesthetics/4-3-racial-and-ethnic-differences-of-beauty/

 

__________________________________



Analysis of dynamic smile and upper lip curvature in young Chinese

April 5, 2013

https://www.nature.com/articles/ijos201317


__________________________________


Three-dimensional analysis of facial morphology in Brazilian population with Caucasian, Asian, and Black ethnicity

2017

http://www.jorr.org/article.asp?issn=2249-4987;year=2017;volume=9;issue=1;spage=1;epage=7;aulast=da


__________________________________

The Consequences of “Race and Color”in Brazil

2016

https://scholar.princeton.edu/sites/default/files/emonk/files/monk_-_the_consequences_of_race_and_color_in_brazil_-_sp.pdf



__________________________________

A comparison of skeletal, dentoalveolar and soft tissue characteristics in white and black Brazilian subjects

2010

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5349749/


Abstract

Objective

This study aimed to compare skeletal, dentoalveolar and soft tissue characteristics in white and black Brazilian subjects presenting normal occlusions.

Material and Methods

The sample comprised the lateral cephalograms of 106 untreated Brazilian subjects with normal occlusion, divided into two groups: Group 1- 50 white subjects (25 of each gender), at a mean age of 13.17 years (standard deviation 1.07); and Group 2- 56 black subjects (28 of each gender), at a mean age of 13.24 years (standard deviation 0.56). Variables studied were obtained from several cephalometric analyses. Independent t tests were used for intergroup comparison and to determine sexual dimorphism.

Results

black subjects presented a more protruded maxilla and mandible, a smaller chin prominence and a greater maxillomandibular discrepancy than white subjects. Blacks presented a more horizontal craniofacial growth pattern than whites. Maxillary and mandibular incisors presented more protruded and proclined in black subjects. The nasolabial angle was larger in whites. Upper and lower lips were more protruded in blacks than in whites.

Conclusions

The present study found a bimaxillary skeletal, dentoalveolar and soft tissue protrusion in black Brazilian subjects compared to white Brazilian subjects, both groups with normal occlusion. Upper and lower lips showed to be more protruded in blacks, but lip thickness was similar in both groups.


__________________________________

 

 

Brazil’s New Problem With Blackness

April 5, 2017

As the proudly mixed-race country grapples with its legacy of slavery, affirmative-action race tribunals are measuring skull shape and nose width to determine who counts as disadvantaged.

https://foreignpolicy.com/2017/04/05/brazils-new-problem-with-blackness-affirmative-action/

 

__________________________________



Contrast between lip and skin color is marker for gender

June 16, 2015

https://medicalxpress.com/news/2015-06-contrast-lip-skin-marker-gender.html

 

__________________________________

You Only Like Black Lips on White People

February 22, 2016

http://affinitymagazine.us/2016/02/22/2016222you-only-like-black-lips-on-white-people/

__________________________________

What Is Appealing?: Sex and Racial Differences in Perceptions of the Physical Attractiveness of Women

July 10th, 2013

https://urj.ucf.edu/docs/sewell.pdf


__________________________________



Differences between Caucasian and Asian attractive faces

July 2017

 

 

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/318548459_Differences_between_Caucasian_and_Asian_attractive_faces

 

__________________________________



Facial Flatness and Cheekbone Morphology in Arctic Mongoloids: A Case of Morphological Taxonomy

1962

https://www.jstor.org/stable/25604544?origin=crossref&seq=1


__________________________________



Why Oakley’s “Asian fit” sunglasses aren’t racist, just science

November 5, 2013

https://qz.com/138525/why-oakleys-asian-fit-sunglasses-arent-racist-just-science/


Let’s just say it: There are a lot of different kinds of noses out there in this beautiful world of ours.

And yet, it’s still somewhat surprising that Oakley churns out a line of wraparound sunglasses tailored to the contours of Asian consumers—marketed under the not-so-subtle moniker “Asian Fit.”


__________________________________

 

 

 

__________________________________

 

 

 

 

__________________________________

 

 

 

__________________________________

 

 

 

__________________________________

 

 

 

 

 

 

                                                                                  (Brachycephalia figure)

 

__________________________________

Skull Triangles: Flinders Petrie Race Theory and Biometrics

https://www.archaeologybulletin.org/articles/10.5334/bha-556/print/


__________________________________



Why racial bias is still inherent in biometric tech

Using limited datasets to build facial recognition technologies, with images that don’t represent society as a whole, has prompted an ethical debate about their evolution

May 28, 2020


https://www.raconteur.net/technology/authentication-2020/biometrics-ethics-bias


__________________________________

 

Paperclip maximizer

The AI does not hate you, nor does it love you, but you are made out of atoms which it can use for something else.

—Eliezer Yudkowsky, Artificial Intelligence as a Positive and Negative Factor in Global Risk

The paperclip maximizer is the canonical thought experiment showing how an artificial general intelligence, even one designed competently and without malice, could ultimately destroy humanity. The thought experiment shows that AIs with apparently innocuous values could pose an existential threat.

The goal of maximizing paperclips is chosen for illustrative purposes because it is very unlikely to be implemented, and has little apparent danger or emotional load (in contrast to, for example, curing cancer or winning wars). This produces a thought experiment which shows the contingency of human values: An extremely powerful optimizer (a highly intelligent agent) could seek goals that are completely alien to ours (orthogonality thesis), and as a side-effect destroy us by consuming resources essential to our survival.

https://wiki.lesswrong.com/wiki/Paperclip_maximizer

 

__________________________________

 

Why Google 'Thought' This Black Woman Was a Gorilla

September 29, 2015

https://www.wnycstudios.org/podcasts/notetoself/episodes/deep-problem-deep-learning

 

__________________________________


How a Popular Medical Device Encodes Racial Bias

August 05, 2020

Pulse oximeters give biased results for people with darker skin. The consequences could be serious.

http://bostonreview.net/science-nature-race/amy-moran-thomas-how-popular-medical-device-encodes-racial-bias

__________________________________



Popular face-aging app now offers ‘Black,’ ‘Indian,’ and ‘Asian’ filters

FaceApp previously got in trouble for making users skin lighter to make them ‘hotter’

Aug 9, 2017

 

 

 

 The different racial filters being used on Cate Blanchett.

https://www.theverge.com/2017/8/9/16119296/selfie-editor-faceapp-racial-filters


__________________________________


Similarities and Differences in Chinese and Caucasian Adults' Use of Facial Cues for Trustworthiness Judgments

April 13, 2012

https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0034859


__________________________________

New research suggests racism could be a genetic trait

August 4, 2020

https://phys.org/news/2020-08-racism-genetic-trait.html



__________________________________




What your cheekbones say about you: Study shows brains make snap judgments on whether to trust a face ‘in a matter of milliseconds’

Our brains judge things like high cheekbones and eyebrows - before we even have the chance to consciously register them

August 06, 2014

https://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/what-your-cheekbones-say-about-you-study-shows-brains-make-snap-judgments-whether-trust-face-matter-milliseconds-9652367.html


__________________________________



Which ethnic groups are known for high cheekbones?

Many ethnic groups African, Asian and Amerindian have high cheekbones.

https://www.quora.com/Which-ethnic-groups-are-known-for-high-cheekbones


__________________________________



ETHNIC CHEEKS! Racial and ethnic differences in facial shape are huge.

https://www.anti-age-magazine.com/ethnic-cheeks-racial-and-ethnic-differences-in-facial-shape-are-huge/

_____________________________________

_____________________________________

__________________________________

__________________________________

__________________________________


Section 9: Nose & Genetics

__________________________________

__________________________________

__________________________________

_____________________________________

_____________________________________

Why do Africans have large noses and lips?

https://forum.biologyonline.com/topic/why-do-africans-have-large-noses-and-lips


__________________________________

Philtral Columns and Nostril Shapes in Nigerian Children: A Morphometric and Aesthetic Analysis

2013

https://www.hindawi.com/journals/psi/2013/382754/


__________________________________


Racial differences in nasal fossa dimensions determined by acoustic rhinometry

Dec 1995

 

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8919216/

Racial differences in nasal fossa dimensions determined by acoustic rhinometry


Abstract

Sixty acoustic rhinographs from subjects of three different ethnic groups (Caucasian [Europeans], Negro, and Oriental) were examined at baseline and after decongestion. The main parameters analysed were minimal cross-sectional area (MCA), the distance at which this occurred (D), nasal volume at 0-4 cm (Vol), mean cross-sectional area at 0-6 cm (MA), and the cross-sectional area at 10 points in the nose (0, 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3, 4, 5, and 6 cm) analysed as a series (A). Values from left and right were combined and mean values used. Analysis was carried out using multiple linear regression and grouped linear regression with analysis of covariance and, for A, multifactorial analysis of variance. For MCA, race was the main determining factor with Orientals and Caucasians significantly lower than Negroes: p<0.0001 (corrected means and 95% confidence intervals [c.i.]: Orientals: 0.63 cm2, 0.55-0.71 cm2; Caucasians: 0.69 cm2, 0.62-0.77 cm2; Negroes: 0.87 cm2, 0.79-0.95 cm2). Height alone correlated with D in the decongested state (p<0.0001); race as well as height in non-decongested noses (p = 0.018). There were significant racial differences in Vol in both decongested (p = 0.014), and non decongested noses (p<0.0001). In the non-decongested state MA was significantly different in all racial groups: p<0.0001 (corrected means and c.i.: Orientals: 3.89 cm2, 3.47-4.31 cm2; Caucasians: 4.67 cm2, 4.27-5.09 cm2; Negroes: 5.13 cm2, 4.72-5.53 cm2). In the decongested state there was a significant difference between Negroes and the other two groups (p = 0.015), and Orientals and Caucasians were a homogenous population. We conclude that race has a significant effect on acoustic rhinometry measurements and this needs to be taken into account.



__________________________________




Rhinoplasty and Ethnicity

https://plasticsurgerykey.com/rhinoplasty-and-ethnicity/


Online Contents

image Animations

In this Chapter Online at experconsult.com

Rhinoplasty in the African–American nose Animation 18.1

Rhinoplasty in the Asian Nose Animation 18.2

Rhinoplasty in the Middle Eastern Nose Animation 18.3
Pearls

• The African-American face has distinct characteristics such as prominent forehead, prominent malar bones, wider bi-malar distance, prominent lips, and, often, microgenia that have to be taken into consideration in planning the rhinoplasty.

• The African-American nose is often wide, flat with short nasal bones, has an underprojected wide tip, wide alar bases, thin lower lateral cartilages, a low radix, small hump, and deficient subnasale.

• Since the nasal bones are short in African-American noses, they may not heal consistently in the optimal position and may shift laterally as time elapses.

• Narrowing of the alar base in African-American noses may require removal of skin from the nostril sill area, even if the sill is ill-defined or absent.

• Asian patients have a receding mid-face, prominent lips, prominent and wide malar bones, and microgenia.

• Asian noses have wide nasal bones, wide and thin lower lateral cartilages, a wide tip, a wide base, low radix, minimal or no hump, inadequate tip projection, deficient subnasale, short and wide horizontally oriented nostrils, and footplates that are displaced laterally.

• Available septal cartilage on both Asian and African-American noses is limited and one has to be prepared to harvest conchal or costal cartilage graft, especially for secondary rhinoplasty.

• The specific maneuvers required for correction of the Asian nose include a more common need for dorsal augmentation, tip graft, use of a columella strut, elongation of the nose, reorientation of the nostril, and removal of the redundant portion of the soft triangle lining.

• Many Middle Eastern patients have some degree of dorsal deviation which often becomes more obvious after removal of the dorsal hump.

• The intercanthal distance in Middle Eastern noses is usually narrower and augmentation of the radix, if necessary, should be done conservatively.

• Middle Eastern patients commonly have long nasal bones, a narrow vault, long upper lateral cartilages, hanging tip, base asymmetry, low radix, large hump, inadequate tip projection, hanging columella, and deficient anterior nasal spine.

• Since the tip is very dependent on the dorsum on patients of Middle Eastern descent, as the hump is reduced, the tip projection will be significantly diminished.

• One key step in achieving sufficient improvement and an optimal and lasting outcome on Middle Eastern noses is cephalic rotation of the tip and fixation in new position using a non-absorbable suture.

• Additionally, correction of Middle Eastern noses will require spreader grafts, columella strut and weakening of the depressor nasi septi muscle.

Facial ethnicity is defined by the color of the skin, along with the length, width, and projection of the different segments of the face. Regardless of ethnicity, the attractiveness of the face is governed by the harmony between the different zones.1,2 This includes the nose. Additionally, there has to be an equilibrium between the different units of the nose in order for it to look pleasing. In this chapter, we will focus on three common ethnic noses and describe the physical attributes and the changes that would create a better balance between the nose and the rest of the face for each ethnic group.


__________________________________

Why our noses are different shapes

March 20th, 2013

https://thechart.blogs.cnn.com/2013/03/20/why-our-noses-are-different-shapes/comment-page-1/

__________________________________

Is Race Plastic? My trip into the ‘ethnic plastic surgery’ minefield.

July 27, 2014

https://www.thecut.com/2014/07/ethnic-plastic-surgery.html

__________________________________




Cranial features and race

27 Nov 2011

johnhawks.net/explainer/laboratory/race-cranium.html



__________________________________



Facts About Hereditary Hemorrhagic Telangiectasia (HHT)

https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/hht/index.html

HHT is a disorder in which some blood vessels do not develop properly. A person with HHT may form blood vessels without the capillaries (tiny blood vessels that pass blood from arteries to veins) that are usually present between arteries and veins. The space between an artery and a vein is often fragile and can burst and bleed much more easily than other blood vessels. Men, women, and children from all racial and ethnic groups can be affected by HHT and experience the problems associated with this disorder, some of which are serious and potentially life-threatening. Fortunately, if HHT is discovered early, effective treatments are available. However, there is no cure for HHT.


__________________________________


Anthropometric studies of nasal parameters of Qazvin residents, Iran

2015

https://medcraveonline.com/MOJAP/anthropometric-studies-of-nasal-parameters-of-qazvin-residents-iran.html


__________________________________

Caucasian vs Ethnic Rhinoplasty

https://www.jaekimmd.com/caucasian-ethnic-rhinoplasty/

 

__________________________________

Rhinoplasty and Ethnicity

April 7, 2013

https://drmarcells.com.au/rhinoplasty-and-ethnicity/


__________________________________


The climate your ancestors came from shaped your nose

2017

https://bigthink.com/philip-perry/the-climate-your-ancestors-came-from-shaped-your-nose

 

__________________________________

Dimensions and resistances of the human nose: Racial differences

March 1991

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1288/00005537-199103000-00009

 

__________________________________

Aquiline nose

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquiline_nose

An aquiline nose (also called a Roman nose or hook nose) is a human nose with a prominent bridge, giving it the appearance of being curved or slightly bent. The word aquiline comes from the Latin word aquilinus ("eagle-like"), an allusion to the curved beak of an eagle. While some have ascribed the aquiline nose to specific ethnic, racial, or geographic groups, and in some cases associated it with other supposed non-physical characteristics (e.g., intelligence, status, personality, etc., see below), no scientific studies or evidence support any such linkage. As with many other phenotypical expressions (e.g., "widow's peak", eye color, earwax type) it is found in many geographically diverse populations.

_____________________________________

_____________________________________

__________________________________

__________________________________

__________________________________


Section 10: Glands & Genetics

__________________________________

__________________________________

__________________________________

_____________________________________

_____________________________________

Body Odor and Race

https://wol.jw.org/en/wol/d/r1/lp-e/101977723#h=6



IT WAS one summer in the early 1960’s, in Arkansas. Two black girls, about eight and ten years of age, would soon be entering a school with whites. Previously, they had attended a rural segregated school.

One day a white woman, who had befriended the girls, asked the younger one: “Pam, what do you think about going to school with white children?” She replied, rather hesitantly: “Well, I don’t know. Now, I don’t mean you, Miz Cruder, but white folks, you know, they smell funny,” and her little nose wrinkled up at the prospect.

This is commonly believed by blacks. Youngsters apparently pick up the idea, not so much from firsthand experience as from what they have heard. But how did this idea that whites have a different, disagreeable odor get started? In large part, it may be in reaction to the long-held views that whites have of blacks.

In centuries past, when blacks were slaves and considered as property, whites often spoke about their body odor. In his recent book Race, John R. Baker says: “The authors of earlier centuries remarked on this subject with greater freedom than those of the present day. Thus Henry Home, in his Sketches of the History of Man, refers to the ‘rank smell’ of Negroes. In a work published in the same year (1774), The History of Jamaica, Long says that the Negroes are distinguished by their ‘bestial or fetid smell, which they all have to a greater or lesser degree.’”

This came to be a generally accepted view among whites. Since blacks were believed to be biologically inferior, having crossed a supposed evolutionary threshold of humanness later than whites, it is not surprising that whites should reach this conclusion

A Widespread Belief

However, it is not just blacks and whites who believe that the other race has a different, objectionable body odor. Melville Jacobs and Bernhard J. Stern, in their book General Anthropology, observed: “Few notions regarding race differences are more widely believed than the idea that each race has its distinctive odor.”

As an example, much was written in centuries past about a specific Jewish odor. Also, the Japanese anatomist Buntaro Adachi wrote that he found the body odor of Europeans to be very objectionable. This was his first impression when settling in Europe, but later he said that he became accustomed to the smell and liked it.

An experience told about an English physician stationed in Bombay, India, is also illuminating. He would have his Indian servant call him from his church on Sunday mornings to impress the congregation with his importance as a medical man. One day the physician attended a large Indian political gathering, but left after a short while, explaining to his servant: “What a relief to get out! In another ten minutes I should have collapsed. The smell!”’ His servant replied: “Ah, Sahib, now you will understand what I suffer every Sunday when I have to go right to the middle of the church to call you out!”

What are we to conclude? That the smell of different races is only a figment of people’s imagination? If it is not, what causes certain races to have different body odors? Is it because of racial inheritance?


__________________________________

 

 Why Do Mosquitoes Bite Some People More Than Others?

Blood type, metabolism, exercise, shirt color and even drinking beer can make individuals especially delicious to mosquitoes.

 

Blood Type

Not surprisingly—since, after all, mosquitoes bite us to harvest proteins from our blood—research shows that they may find certain blood types more appetizing than others. One study found that in a controlled setting, mosquitoes landed on people with Type O blood nearly twice as often as those with Type A. People with Type B blood fell somewhere in the middle of this itchy spectrum. Additionally, based on other genes, about 85 percent of people secrete a chemical signal through their skin that indicates which blood type they have, while 15 percent do not, and mosquitoes are also more attracted to secretors than nonsecretors regardless of which type they are. 

https://getpocket.com/explore/item/why-do-mosquitoes-bite-some-people-more-than-others?utm_source=pocket-newtab

 

__________________________________

 

 Nigger Repellent

https://www.urbandictionary.com/define.php?term=nigger%20repellent

An object, concept, idea, or action which drives away a negroid animal.

"Oh look, there is a group of fine african americans stabbing that old lady. Let me grab my nigger repellent and some bullets"

"Silly Bob! Offering a negro a job? Don't you know hard work is nigger repellent?"

 

__________________________________

 

“Black people don’t like the cold.”

February 2, 2011

http://dcentric.wamu.org/2011/02/black-people-dont-like-the-cold/index.html

Now reading: “Biking While Black?“, Rend Smith’s take on a controversial Greater Greater Washington post, which theorized that one of the reasons why Capital Bikeshare wasn’t popular east of the Anacostia was because…”black people don’t like the cold.”

The African-American blogger who wrote the GGW piece, Veronica Davis, provided a list of seven reasons why the bike-sharing program wasn’t catching on, but most readers zeroed in on part of her final point: “Seasonal usage”.

    “I was basically called racist,” Davis says…

    The last reason on her list, “seasonal usage,” prompted Davis to write a sentence that eventually earned a strikethrough from GGW editors: “In general, African-Americans, which make up the large majority of the residents east of the river, are averse to colder temperatures.”

    A number of the 120 comments that followed took offense to Davis’ assertion, which she followed up with a salient point about the futility of introducing Bikeshare stations during the latter part of the year. “Because relatively few residents were cyclists prior to the introduction of CaBi, the chances that the uninitiated bike rider is going to start cycling in late fall or the winter are relatively low.”…

    But Davis explains she wasn’t positing a scientific theory when she mentioned African Americans not liking the chill. It’s just something that’s said among black people, she says: “If I had said that to an entirely black audience, no one would have been offended.” The small piece of controversy might have overshadowed the core of Davis’ piece, which, more than simply explaining a lack of enthusiasm for Bikeshare East of the River, sought to combat an emerging perception Davis doesn’t like– that District blacks are and will remain anti-bike.

 

__________________________________

Why is Capital Bikeshare usage low east of the river?

January 31, 2011

https://ggwash.org/view/8097/why-is-capital-bikeshare-usage-low-east-of-the-river

7. Seasonal usage. I wonder if the temperatures between October and December play a role in the low usage.

In general, African-Americans, which make up the large majority of the residents east of the river, are averse to colder temperatures.

__________________________________

 

What Would You Do? Bike Theft (White Guy, Black Guy, Pretty Girl)

May 27, 2010

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ge7i60GuNRg

 

__________________________________



Colored Hockey League

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colored_Hockey_League

The Colored Hockey League was an all-black ice hockey league founded in Nova Scotia in 1895, which featured teams from across Canada's Maritime Provinces. The league operated for several decades lasting until 1930...

__________________________________

Black players in ice hockey

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_players_in_ice_hockey


__________________________________



Race and ethnicity in the NHL

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race_and_ethnicity_in_the_NHL


The National Hockey League (NHL) evolved from a mono-ethnic and primarily Canadian professional athletic league to span North America. The distribution of ethnic groups has been gradually changing since the inception of the NHL. The league consists of a variety of players from varying nationalities and diverse backgrounds. Once known as a league riddled with racism and exclusiveness, the NHL has made positive steps toward a more diverse and inclusive institution.

According to statistics, gathered by www.quanthockey.com, the NHL began its expansion of player nationalities in the 1970s, where players hailed from the United States, Sweden, and Finland. The share of Canadians in the league dropped to 75% by the 1980s and is now slightly less than 50%. In 2011, the NHL was composed of 93% of players who identified as white, with the remaining 7% identifying as varying ethnicities.[9][needs update]


__________________________________

 

98% of professional hockey players are white. Is the NHL a racist organization?

https://www.quora.com/98-of-professional-hockey-players-are-white-Is-the-NHL-a-racist-organization

__________________________________

Why the Ice Is White

Jun 19, 2015

The Chicago Blackhawks may be so good that "they got black people loving hockey," but the NHL is still the most segregated professional sport. Why is that?

https://psmag.com/social-justice/why-is-hockey-so-white


__________________________________



Race and ethnicity in the NBA

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race_and_ethnicity_in_the_NBA

The composition of race and ethnicity in the National Basketball Association (NBA) has changed throughout the league's history. The first non-white player to play in the league was an Asian American, Wataru Misaka, in 1947. African Americans entered the league beginning in 1950. According to racial equality activist Richard Lapchick, the NBA in 2015 was composed of 74.4 percent black players, 23.3 percent white players, 1.8 percent Latino players of any race, and 0.2 percent Asian players. The league has the highest percentage of black players of any major professional sports leagues in the United States and Canada.

By 2020, 81.1% of players in the NBA are black (if mixed are also counted as black), 17.9% white, 12.5% mixed race (mostly half-black half-white), and 1.1% of other races. The league has the highest percentage of black players of any major professional sports leagues in the United States and Canada. In 2020, NBA's viewership appears to be predominantly black and hispanic.

 __________________________________

 Why do most black people smell bad?

http://www.maybenow.com/Why-do-most-black-people-smell-bad-q24092449

 

__________________________________

Three simple ways to deactivate your bad genes

27 July 2020 | Science

Epigenetics, the study of the code that controls our DNA, tells us that our lifestyle choices can have a significant impact on our gene expression and our lives.

https://www.bbc.co.uk/reel/video/p08lzgyr/three-simple-ways-to-deactivate-your-bad-genes

 

__________________________________

 

An olfactory demography of a diverse metropolitan population

2012

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3493268/

Abstract

Background

Human perception of the odour environment is highly variable. People vary both in their general olfactory acuity as well as in if and how they perceive specific odours. In recent years, it has been shown that genetic differences contribute to variability in both general olfactory acuity and the perception of specific odours. Odour perception also depends on other factors such as age and gender. Here we investigate the influence of these factors on both general olfactory acuity and on the perception of 66 structurally and perceptually different odours in a diverse subject population.

Results

We carried out a large human olfactory psychophysics study of 391 adult subjects in metropolitan New York City, an ethnically and culturally diverse North American metropolis. 210 of the subjects were women and the median age was 34.6 years (range 19–75). We recorded ~2,300 data points per subject to obtain a comprehensive perceptual phenotype, comprising multiple perceptual measures of 66 diverse odours. We show that general olfactory acuity correlates with gender, age, race, smoking habits, and body type. Young, female, non-smoking subjects had the highest average olfactory acuity. Deviations from normal body type in either direction were associated with decreased olfactory acuity. Beyond these factors we also show that, surprisingly, there are many odour-specific influences of race, age, and gender on olfactory perception. We show over 100 instances in which the intensity or pleasantness perception of an odour is significantly different between two demographic groups.

Conclusions

These data provide a comprehensive snapshot of the olfactory sense of a diverse population. Olfactory acuity in the population is most strongly influenced by age, followed by gender. We also show a large number of diverse correlations between demographic factors and the perception of individual odours that may reflect genetic differences as well as different prior experiences with these odours between demographic groups.



__________________________________




The smelling test: The genetics of olfaction

January 24, 2011

Why are some people more sensitive to odours than others? And why do no two people experience a scent in the same way? The answer lies in our genes, explains Laura Spinney

https://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/the-smelling-test-the-genetics-of-olfaction-2192370.html


__________________________________

THE EFFECT OF ETHNICITY ON HUMAN AXILLARY ODORANT PRODUCTION

2015

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4724538/


Abstract

Previous findings from our laboratory highlighted marked ethnic differences in volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from cerumen among individuals of Caucasian, East Asian, and African-American descent, based, in part, on genetic differences in a gene that codes for a transport protein, which is a member of the ATP-binding cassette transporter, sub-family C, member 11 (ABCC11). In the current work, we hypothesized that axillary odorants produced by East Asians would differ markedly from those obtained from individuals of European or African descent based on the pattern of ethnic diversity that exists in ABCC11. Using gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) we examined differences in axillary odorant VOCs among 30 individuals of African-American, Caucasian, and East Asian descent with respect to their ABCC11 genotype. While no qualitative differences in the type of axillary odorants were observed across ethnic groups, we found that characteristic axillary odorants varied quantitatively with respect to ethnic origin. We propose that ABCC11 is not solely responsible for predicting the relative amounts of volatiles found in axillary secretions and that other biochemical pathways must be involved.


__________________________________


A strong association of axillary osmidrosis with the wet earwax type determined by genotyping of the ABCC11 gene

Aug 2009

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19650936/


 Abstract

Background: Two types of cerumen occur in humans: the wet type with brownish, sticky earwax, and the dry type with a lack of or reduced ceruminous secretion. The wet type is common in populations of European and African origin, while the dry type is frequently seen in Eastern Asian populations. An association between axillary odor and the wet-type earwax was first identified approximately 70 years ago. The data were based on a phenotypical analysis of the two phenotypes among the Japanese by a researcher or by self-declaration of the subjects examined, and were not obtained using definite diagnostic methods. Recently, we identified a single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP; rs17822931) of the ABCC11 gene as the determinant of the earwax types. In the present study, to determine whether the SNP can serve as a diagnostic marker for axillary osmidrosis (AO), we examined genotypes at rs17822931 in 79 Japanese AO individuals. AO was defined here as a clinical condition of individuals with a deep anxiety regarding axillary odor and had undergone the removal of bilateral axillary apocrine glands.


__________________________________



Ethnic/racial and genetic influences on cerumen odorant profiles

Jan 2015

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25501636/

Abstract 

 

This report describes the volatile organic compounds (VOCs) associated with human cerumen (earwax) and the effects of ethnicity/race and variation on the ATP-binding cassette, sub-family C, member 11 gene (ABCC11). A single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) in ABCC11 affects the cerumen VOC profiles of individuals from African, Caucasian, and Asian descent. Employing gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) we have identified the nature and relative abundance of cerumen VOCs from 32 male donors. Our results show that cerumen contains a complex mixture of VOCs and that the amounts of these compounds vary across individuals as well as across ethnic/racial groups. In six of the seven compounds whose detected concentrations were found to be statistically different across groups, individuals of African descent (AfD) > Caucasian descent (CaD) > Asians descent (AsD). Our findings also reveal that ABCC11 genotype alone does not predict the type and relative levels of volatiles found in human cerumen, and suggest that other biochemical pathways must be involved. Examination of the composition and diversity of external auditory canal microbiota in a small subset of our subject population revealed that the ear microbiota may not be directly correlated with either ethnic group membership or ABCC11 genotype.

__________________________________



A missense variant of the ABCC11 gene is associated with Axillary Osmidrosis susceptibility and clinical phenotypes in the Chinese Han Population

2017

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5423033/


Abstract

Axillary osmidrosis (AO) is a common condition characterized by an offensive odor arising from apocrine gland secretions in the axillae that socially and psychologically impairs affected individuals. The exact aetiology of AO is still not fully understood, but genetic factors have been suggested to play an important role. Recently, a single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) rs17822931 in the ABCC11 gene located on human chromosome 16q12.1 has been shown to be associated with AO. In this study, we genotyped rs17822931 in two independent samples of Chinese Hans including 93 AO individuals vs 95 controls and 81 AO individuals vs 106 controls by using SNaPshot Multiplex Kit. We confirmed the association for ABCC11 gene, showing that rs17822931-G was significantly associated with increased risk for AO (Pcombined = 1.42E-21, OR = 83.94, 95% CI = 83.03–84.85). We also found rs17822931 was associated with subphenotypes of AO. AO individuals carrying the risk allele G are more likely to show wet earwax (P = 2.40E-05), higher frequency of family history (P = 1.04E-02) and early age of onset (P = 3.81E-02). Our study concluded that the association of rs17822931 in the ABCC11 gene with AO was replicated in Chinese Han population.



__________________________________


Keen sense of smell linked to longer life

April 29, 2019

https://www.reuters.com/article/us-health-smell/keen-sense-of-smell-linked-to-longer-life-idUSKCN1S528S


__________________________________


A Decreased Ability to Smell Is Linked to Obesity

Sep 20, 2019

https://www.bergerhenryent.com/a-decreased-ability-to-smell-is-linked-to-obesity/



__________________________________


Do you smell what I smell?

April 30, 2019

From genes to receptors to perception: Olfaction unraveled

Summary:

    A new study sheds light on understanding the extensive individual differences in how we sense odors. By showing that small changes in a single olfactory receptor gene can affect how strong and pleasant a person finds an odor, the findings expand understanding of how olfactory receptors in the nose encode information about the properties of odors even before that information reaches the brain.

https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2019/04/190430164208.htm


__________________________________


The Prevalence of Anosmia and Associated Factors Among U.S. Black and White Older Adults

May 11, 2017

https://academic.oup.com/biomedgerontology/article/72/8/1080/3814129

 

__________________________________


Racial differences in nasal fossa dimensions determined by acoustic rhinometry

1995

https://ucdavis.pure.elsevier.com/en/publications/racial-differences-in-nasal-fossa-dimensions-determined-by-acoust


Abstract

Sixty acoustic rhinographs from subjects of three different ethnic groups (Caucasian [Europeans], Negro, and Oriental) were examined at baseline and after decongestion. The main parameters analysed were minimal cross-sectional area (MCA), the distance at which this occurred (D), nasal volume at 0-4 cm (Vol), mean cross-sectional area at 0-6 cm (MA), and the cross-sectional area at 10 points in the nose (0, 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3, 4, 5, and 6 cm) analysed as a series (A). Values from left and right were combined and mean values used. Analysis was carried out using multiple linear regression and grouped linear regression with analysis of covariance and, for A, multifactorial analysis of variance. For MCA, race was the main determining factor with Orientals and Caucasians significantly lower than Negroes: p<0.0001 (corrected means and 95% confidence intervals [c.i.]: Orientals: 0.63 cm2, 0.55-0.71 cm2; Caucasians: 0.69 cm2, 0.62-0.77 cm2; Negroes: 0.87 cm2, 0.79-0.95 cm2). Height alone correlated with D in the decongested state (p<0.0001); race as well as height in non-decongested noses (p=0.018). There were significant racial differences in Vol in both decongested (p=0.014), and non decongested noses (p<0.0001). In the non-decongested state MA was significantly different in all racial groups: p<0.0001 (corrected means and c.i.: Orientals: 3.89 cm2, 3.47-4.31 cm2; Caucasians: 4.67 cm2, 4.27-5.09 cm2; Negroes: 5.13 cm2, 4.72-5.53 cm2). In the decongested state there was a significant difference between Negroes and the other two groups (p=0.015) and Orientals and Caucasians were a homogenous population. We conclude that race has a significant effect on acoustic rhinometry measurements and this needs to be taken into account.



__________________________________


Grease and Sweat: Race and Smell in Eighteenth-Century English Culture

July 2016

https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14780038.2016.1202008


Abstract

From 1690 to 1800 texts printed in England linked racial difference and foul odour through understandings of occupation, food, cosmetics and sweat. Even by the end of the eighteenth-century racial odour was represented as a labile, culturally and environmentally determined characteristic. This article traces how the social ‘use’ of olfactory stereotypes, particularly their links with cosmetics, food, and odorous spaces, determined the mobilization of explanations for and attitudes to racial scent. It argues that ideas of race should not be considered monolithic or described in terms of narratives that posit a divide between the body/culture, but that racial stereotypes should be understood as collections of traits, of which smell was one, with distinctive histories.


__________________________________


Sexual and Racial Differences in the Response of Sweat Glands to Acetylcholine and Pilocarpine

August 1948

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022202X15502996


__________________________________

Whites excrete a water load more rapidly than blacks

2009

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2671724/


__________________________________



The human nose has been underrated for 150 years, but science is setting the record straight

May 11, 2017

https://www.latimes.com/science/sciencenow/la-sci-sn-humans-smell-myth-20170511-story.html


__________________________________



This Dog's Nose Is So Good at Smelling Cancer That Scientists Are Trying to Build One Just Like It

January 24 | 2020

https://leapsmag.com/this-dogs-nose-is-so-good-at-smelling-cancer-that-scientists-are-trying-to-build-one-just-like-it/


__________________________________



Experimental technology can 'smell' disease on your breath

November 7, 2017

https://www.cnn.com/2017/11/07/health/na-nose-disease-smell-technology/index.html

 _________________________________

Adiposity is not equal in a multi-race/ethnic adolescent population: NHANES 1999-2004

2011

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21436795/


__________________________________



10 Armenian People’s Physical Characteristics Found In Armenia

2016

https://armeniagogo.com/armenian-people-physical-characteristics/



Do you know about Armenian people’s physical characteristics? Are there any typical looks that most of Armenians share?

Armenia is one of the ancient nations in the world. Armenians belong to the Europoid and Armenoid race types.

They are commonly characterized by having:

    Short and round skull
    Wide forehead
    Medium face size
    Long and curved nose
    Thick eyebrows
    Wide and mostly dark cute eyes
    Long eyelashes
    Mostly thick and dark hair type
    White skin




__________________________________



Genes for nose shape found

Date:

    May 19, 2016

https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2016/05/160519081832.htm


__________________________________


Investigating the case of human nose shape and climate adaptation

March 16, 2017

https://journals.plos.org/plosgenetics/article?id=10.1371/journal.pgen.1006616

__________________________________

 
Recognizing ethnicity by the nose.

https://www.eupedia.com/forum/threads/30832-Recognizing-ethnicity-by-the-nose/page4

 

__________________________________

Climate may have shaped the evolution of the human nose

2017

https://www.popsci.com/climate-nose-shape-evolution/

__________________________________

 

The evolution of the nose: why is the human hooter so big?

 

March 2016

https://www.newscientist.com/article/2082274-the-evolution-of-the-nose-why-is-the-human-hooter-so-big/


__________________________________




16 Different Types Of Noses And What Do They Mean


http://www.listreallife.com/16-different-types-noses/


__________________________________


A New Study Claims There are 14 Types of Caucasian Noses. Check 'Em Out!

An Israeli scientist has apparently figured out that there are 14 different kinds of Caucasian noses. Why he spent time on this is unclear, but it's interesting anyway...


https://www.glamour.com/story/a-new-study-claims-there-are-1

 

__________________________________

Common Nose Type and Connection with Ethnicity and Personality

https://knowfacts.org/nose/nose-types-personality-ethnicity-ancestry-nubian-roman-button-hawk-snub-celestial-hook/


__________________________________


The female nose always knows: Do women have more olfactory neurons?

November 5, 2014

https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2014/11/141105165207.htm

Using a new method called isotropic fractionator, a group of researchers has found biological evidence that may explain the superior olfactory abilities that women have over men.

Individuals show great diversity in their ability to identify scents and odors. More importantly, males and females greatly differ in their perceptual evaluation of odors, with women outperforming men on many kinds of smell tests.


__________________________________


Negroid Nose

https://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Negroid+nose


Negroid

denoting, relating to, or belonging to one of the major racial groups of mankind, characterized by brown-black skin, tightly-curled hair, a short nose, and full lips. This group includes the indigenous peoples of Africa south of the Sahara, their descendants elsewhere, and some Melanesian peoples.

__________________________________


Why We Have Different Nose Shapes: Climate Responsible For Varying Nostril Size, Shape Among Ethnic Groups

2017

https://www.medicaldaily.com/why-we-have-different-nose-shapes-climate-responsible-varying-nostril-size-413673


__________________________________


Your Nose—Big or Small—Is Shaped by Your DNA

5/19/16

https://www.newsweek.com/nose-shape-and-size-genes-dna-evolution-461626


__________________________________


Aesthetics in international beauty pageants

3. Population variation in the front view of the face

http://www.femininebeauty.info/ethnic-comparisons/face-front


__________________________________

 

Esthetic preferences of European American, Hispanic American, Japanese, and African judges for soft-tissue profiles

2009

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19362272/

 

__________________________________

100 Facts for Differences Between Human Races

August 19, 2013

https://europeanmediacentre.wordpress.com/2013/08/19/100-facts-for-differences-between-human-races/


FACT #3: The I.Q.’s of American Negroes are from 15 to 20 points, on average, below those of American Whites. (26) (16) (18) (22)

FACT #4: These Black\White differences have been demonstrated repeatedly by every test ever conducted by every branch of the U.S. Military, every state, county, and local school board, the U.S. Dept. of Education, etc. The same ratio of difference has held true over a 40 year period. (18) (26) (24)

FACT #5: With an average I.Q. of 85, only 16% of Blacks score over 100, while half the White population does. The Negro overlap of White median I.Q.’s ranges from 10 to 25 percent– equality would require 50 percent. (31) (27) (16)

FACT #6: Blacks are 6 times as likely to have I.Q.’s of 50 to 70 which put them in the slow learner (retarded) category, while Whites are ten times more likely to score 130 or over.

FACT #87: A White woman is 15 times more likely to contract AIDS by engaging in sex with a Negro than with a White heterosexual. (U.S. Centers for Disease Control)

FACT #96: In 1930, about 33% of the world was White. Today, the U.N. estimates that only about 9.5% of the world’s population is Caucasian. This percentage is falling rapidly.

FACT #98: In 1988 there were 9,406 cases of Black-on-White rape and fewer than 10 cases of White on Black rape in the U.S. 

__________________________________



Why do some black people wear silk caps to bed?

https://www.quora.com/Why-do-some-black-people-wear-silk-caps-to-bed

__________________________________



30 Things Black People Do When Nobody’s Watching

2012

https://www.singleblackmale.org/2012/03/09/30-things-black-people-do-when-nobodys-watching/


__________________________________



Face Variations by Ethnic Group

https://www.beautyanalysis.com/beauty-and-you/face-variations/face-variations-ethnic-group/


__________________________________


Facial Anthropometric Differences among Gender, Ethnicity, and Age Groups

10 March 2010

https://academic.oup.com/annweh/article/54/4/391/273534

 
__________________________________

Revisiting Mengele’s Malignant “Race Science”

June 15, 2020

https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2020/06/22/revisiting-mengeles-malignant-race-science

__________________________________


The Genetics of Biracial Characteristics

 April 24, 2017

https://sciencing.com/genetics-biracial-characteristics-23660.html



By Eric Bank

Race is an imprecise concept. All humans alive today belong to the species Homo sapiens sapiens and the characteristics attributed to “race” have varied historically with cultures and civilizations. Science divides up the study of race into many disciplines, including anthropology, sociology and genetics. The genetic characteristics of so-called biracial individuals often stem from a mix of various genes that together express traits such as skin color and eye shape.
Additive Polygenic Traits

Genes are the small portions of long deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA, molecules that are located within a cell’s chromosomes. Genes code for all the proteins an individual will manufacture. Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes, one set from each parent. This means that, except for a few sex-linked genes in men, you have two copies, or alleles, of each gene. Many human traits are polygenic: They arise from the complex interactions of several genes. Often, polygenic traits are additive -- the number of alleles you have for a given characteristic determines the extent to which the trait is expressed.
Single-Nucleotide Polymorphism

Significant variations in traits can often be traced to the mutation of a single nucleotide within a gene, an event that results in a single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP). The sequence of nucleotides -- ringed molecules containing nitrogen -- within a gene determines the sequence of amino acids in the corresponding protein. An SNP can create a new protein if it is in a protein-coding area and if it results in a codon that encodes a different amino acid. Such a protein change may be evident in a person’s phenotype, or observable characteristics. For example, scientists study SNPs to trace the change in average skin color as humans migrated from Africa to northern climes. A “biracial” individual might have a particular pair of alleles that differ by one SNP.

Eye Fold

Individuals of Asian descent often have eye folds that give their eyes a slanted appearance. The eye fold is one of several traits under the control of a particular gene, making the gene “pleiotropic.” The fold is part of a package that includes differences to the shape of the nose bridge and the amount of fat stored in the eyelid. The offspring of parents with and without eye folds might have a full fold, a reduced fold or no fold at all. Again, this highlights the complexity of ascribing genetic characteristics to the notion of race.


__________________________________




By rejecting the race concept, anthropologists are ignoring obvious human biological variation.

September 2, 2013

https://harvard-university-application-essay.blogspot.com/2013/09/by-rejecting-race-concept.html



__________________________________

RACE, EVOLUTION AND BEHAVIOR:

A Life History Perspective

 
2nd Special Abridged Edition

 
Professor J. Philippe Rushton

University of Western Ontario

http://www.harbornet.com/folks/theedrich/JP_Rushton/Race.htm


__________________________________

 

 Facts About Physical Differences Between Whites and Blacks

2010

https://creativityvictoria.wordpress.com/2010/04/11/facts-about-physical-differences-between-whites-and-blacks/

 

_____________________________________

_____________________________________

__________________________________

__________________________________

__________________________________


Section 11: Skin & Genetics

__________________________________

__________________________________

__________________________________

_____________________________________

_____________________________________

Racial (Ethnic) Differences in Skin Properties: The Objective Data

February 2003

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/8988722_Racial_Ethnic_Differences_in_Skin_Properties_The_Objective_Data

Abstract

Racial (ethnic) differences in skin properties may explain racial disparities seen in dermatologic disorders and provide insight into appropriate differences in the management of these disorders. However, racial differences in skin have been minimally investigated by objective methods and the data are often contradictory. Objective methods studied include transepidermal water loss (TEWL), water content (WC), corneocyte variability, blood vessel reactivity, elastic recovery/extensibility, pH gradient, lipid content, surface microflora, microscopic evaluation of mast cell granules, and confocal microscopy. The majority of the evidence (six out of eight studies) indicates that TEWL is greater in Black skin compared with White skin. TEWL measurements of Asian skin are inconclusive as they have been found to be equal to Black skin and greater than Caucasian skin, equal to Caucasian skin, and less than all other ethnic groups in different studies. Racial differences in WC, as measured by resistance, capacitance, conductance and impedance, are also inconclusive as the data are contradictory. While the evidence regarding corneocyte desquamation is minimal, one clinically provocative observation is that Blacks have a 2.5 times greater spontaneous desquamation rate compared with Caucasians and Asians, possibly accounting for an increased frequency of xerosis seen clinically in Blacks. With regards to blood vessel reactivity, studies can not be compared to each other because each uses different vasoactive substances. However, each study, except for one study comparing Hispanics and Whites, and another comparing Japanese and German women, reveal some degree of racial variation in blood vessel reactivity. It has been demonstrated that the pH of Black skin is less than White skin; however, the studies that have demonstrated this have done so under different skin conditions and on different anatomic sites. Racial differences in lipid content are inconclusive. Additionally, there is insufficient and conflicting evidence to make conclusions regarding racial differences in skin biomechanics and skin microflora. Microscopic evaluation reveals that Black skin contains larger mast cell granules, and differences in stuctural properties and enzymes of mast cells compared with White skin, possibly accounting for differences in pruritus experienced by the individuals of these racial groups. There exists substantial evidence to support that Black skin has a higher TEWL, variable blood vessel reactivity, decreased skin surface pH, and larger mast cell granules compared with White skin. Although some deductions have been made about Asian and Hispanic skin, further evaluation needs to be done. Differences in WC, corneocyte desquamation, elastic recovery/extensibility, lipid content and skin microflora, although statistically significant, are inconclusive.


__________________________________

Racial differences in skin pathophysiology

April 1996

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0190962296800703


Racial differences in skin function occur and may be responsible for differences in skin reactivity in physiologic and pathologic conditions. This article reviews the main racial anatomic and physiologic differences as well as mechanisms of irritation, sensitization, and drug absorption reported in the recent literature. Racial differences in transcutaneous penetration of chemicals and drug absorption have been described. Decreased transcutaneous penetration has been reported in black persons. In contrast, conflicting findings have been reported concerning some aspects of irritation and sensitization. Decreased erythematous reactions have been found in pigmented skin, whereas white persons have a stronger resistance to water barrier damage. Regional variation in skin function is more evident in fair skin because of the modifying effects of long-term UV exposure.


__________________________________



The Caucasian and African skin types differ morphologically and functionally in their dermal component

April 2009

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/26241361_The_Caucasian_and_African_skin_types_differ_morphologically_and_functionally_in_their_dermal_component


In the literature, most reported differences between African and Caucasian skin properties concern pigmentation and barrier function of the stratum corneum and related photoprotective properties. However, little is known about differences in morphology and possibly related biological functions. In this study, we investigated: (i) architectural differences of Caucasian and African mammary skin biopsies using microscopy, (ii) comparative constitutive expression of cytokines, matrix metalloproteinase 1 (MMP-1) and its inhibitors in papillary dermal fibroblast (pF) and reticular dermal fibroblast (rF) cultures in order to reveal biological features. (i) Neither epidermis thickness nor superficial dermis thickness was significantly different in African versus Caucasian subjects. However, the dermal-epidermal junction (DEJ) length in African skin was about threefold that in Caucasian skin. No differences were noticed as regards elastic and collagen fibre organization. (ii) In papillary fibroblast cultures, a significantly higher level of monocyte chemotactic peptide-1 (MCP-1) protein was found in cell cultures from African donors when compared with that from Caucasians. With regard to keratinocyte growth factor (KGF), the ratio of papillary to reticular fibroblast expression was found to be twofold greater in cell cultures from African donors compared with that from Caucasian donors. The same trend was found regarding MMP-1 and tissue inhibitor metalloproteinase protein 1 (TIMP-1) protein expression. African skin displays a greater convolution of the DEJ and a higher papillary fibroblast activity. These findings reveal that differences between African and Caucasian skin do not only affect upper epidermis but also dermal functions and dermal-epidermal cellular interactions.


__________________________________

Melanin, Afrocentricity, and Pseudoscience

1993

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/ajpa.1330360604

ABSTRACT

 A component of the Afrocentric movement has incorporated a theory that black people, including ancient Egyptians, have superior men- tal, physical, and paranormal powers because they have more melanin both in their skin and in their brains. By extension it is also claimed that black people have more melatonin and P-MSH in their systems and that these compounds also contribute to the superiority of people of color over whites. In this paper, these claims are detailed and refuted. A review of  the genetics and biochemistry of human pigmentation shows that all humans have sim- ilar amounts of  neuromelanin (brain melanin), and that its concentration is absolutely independent of skin color; that adult humans do not synthesize P-MSH; and that human melatonin has no clearly demonstrable physiolog- ical function and no relationship to skin color. “Melanists” also distort hu- man evolution by claiming that European whites are descendants of negroid albinos. The main problems posed by this ideological movement are that it will increase the already rampant scientific illiteracy in this country, it will contribute to further widening the gap between the races, and, most impor- tantly, it is being  introduced into the public school curriculum under the guise of multicultural education.


__________________________________

Perceptions of and Preferences for Skin Color, Black Racial Identity, and Self-Esteem Among African Americans

2017

https://hhs.uncg.edu/hdf/wp-content/uploads/sites/23/2017/11/sicoard-Perceptions-and-Preferences-for-Skin-Color.pdf

During the era of slavery, light-complexioned Blacks, often the offspring of the White slave owners and enslaved Africans, were given preferential treatment via assignment to housework in stark contrast to darker skinned Blacks...


__________________________________



Why Does Tanning Bring Out White Spots on My Skin?

March 27, 2018

https://health.clevelandclinic.org/why-does-tanning-bring-out-white-spots-on-my-skin/

 

 

 

Q: Tanning brings out white spots on my skin. Should I worry?


A: Your condition has a long name with lots of syllables: idiopathic guttate hypomelanosis.

It causes little white areas to appear on skin that is exposed to the sun. Thus, the face, neck, hands and arms are most often affected.

People with different skin types develop idiopathic guttate hypomelanosis. Most do so in their 40s or 50s.

While there are no effective treatments for this condition, I would not worry. It’s simply the nature of your skin to react to sun in this way.

That said, I strongly advise you to use sunscreen. It will prevent premature aging of your skin and, more importantly, skin cancer.


__________________________________

 

Black Skin, White Skulls: The Nineteenth Century Debate over the Racial Identity of the Ancient Egyptians

May 22, 2007

https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13534640701267123?src=recsys&journalCode=tpar20


__________________________________

Clines and Clusters Versus  “Race:”  A Test in Ancient Egypt and the Case of  a Death on the  Nile

1993

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/ajpa.1330360603


__________________________________



Forensic Anthropology: Studying Bones

11/14/2014

https://hs.pequannock.org/ourpages/auto/2014/11/14/42550315/Forensic_Anthropology_Introduction_Notes.pdf


__________________________________

 

Scabies in Blacks

June 1979

https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamadermatology/article-abstract/540251

 Abstract

To the Editor.—  In the August Archives, Dr A. Paul Kelly reports that he has never, in his clinic with an attendance of more than 60% blacks, seen a single documented case of scabies in his black patients (114:1245, 1978). He requests information from all physicians with documented cases of scabies in black patients. To me, this request is astonishing. In my former skin clinic at Mulago Hospital in Uganda, several patients with scabies were seen every day. In 1972, our number of cases with scabies amounted to 777. As mentioned in my correspondence in the July Archives (114:1096, 1978) the mite was found in nearly all cases using the technique here described. The physicians and the paramedical staff were good "hunters." In black people, the mite is seen as a "white point" in the end of the burrows in contrast to a "dark point" in white people.


__________________________________


Role of Race in Scabies Infestation

April 1978

https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamadermatology/article-abstract/538621

 Abstract

To the Editor.—  I would like to think few, experienced dermatologists would argue that there are some obvious differences between the reactivity of heavily pigmented skin, ie, black, and mildly pigmented skin, ie, white, to identical or similar stimuli. The prevalence of keloids or follicular eruptions in blacks and the overwhelming predominance of rosacea or actinic keratoses in whites are wellknown examples of the phenomenon to which I refer.In this regard, a review of my records, which covered a continuous 18-month period that ended March 1977, reveals that of 37 patients who had scabies (confirmed by microscopic identification of the mite and/or eggs or by a salutary response to antiscabietic therapy), 31 were white, one was black, and the remainder represented other racial groups. This data are made more noteworthy by the fact that the patient population was 48% black, 36% white, and the rest comprised other races; moreover,


__________________________________

Problems in Diagnosing Scabies, a Global Disease in Human and Animal Populations

April 2007

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1865595/


__________________________________



Psoriasis in Skin of Color: Epidemiology, Genetics, Clinical Presentation, and Treatment Nuances

November, 2014

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4255694/

Introduction

Psoriasis is a common, chronic inflammatory skin disorder that occurs worldwide. However, epidemiological, clinical, and therapeutic data pertaining to psoriasis in non-Caucasian racial/ethnic groups are currently limited. Psoriasis in darker skin types can present diagnostic challenges due to overlapping features with other papulosquamous disorders and less conspicuous erythema. Variations in clinical presentation and quality-of-life impact of psoriasis may contribute to nuances in the approach to treatment in patients with skin of color.

__________________________________

Psoriasis: Don’t Miss It in Asian and Hispanic Patients

2018

—Psoriasis may be underdiagnosed in people of non-European ancestry, and disease subtypes may differ among ethnic groups.

https://www.medpagetoday.com/resource-centers/contemporary-approaches-psoriasis/psoriasis-dont-miss-asian-and-hispanic-patients/2359


__________________________________

Racial minorities less likely to see a doctor for psoriasis

December 13, 2017

https://medicalxpress.com/news/2017-12-racial-minorities-doctor-psoriasis.html


__________________________________


Whites More Likely Than Others to Seek Help for Psoriasis

2017

https://www.webmd.com/skin-problems-and-treatments/psoriasis/news/20171228/whites-more-likely-to-seek-help-for-psoriasis


__________________________________


US Latino Population With Psoriasis Exposed to Heightened Disease Severity, Worse Quality of Life

January 8, 2020

https://www.ajmc.com/view/us-latino-population-with-psoriasis-exposed-to-heightened-disease-severity-worse-quality-of-life

 

__________________________________

Psoriasis in Skin of Color: Insights into the Epidemiology, Clinical Presentation, Genetics, Quality-of-Life Impact, and Treatment of Psoriasis in Non-White Racial/Ethnic Groups

December 05, 2017

https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40257-017-0332-7

 

__________________________________

Racial Differences in Perceptions of Psoriasis Therapies: Implications for Racial Disparities in Psoriasis Treatment

August 2019

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022202X19300995

 

__________________________________

Ethnicity affects the presenting severity of psoriasis

July 2017

https://www.jaad.org/article/S0190-9622(17)30294-3/pdf

 

__________________________________

A Retrospective Study to Investigate Racial and Ethnic Variations in the Treatment of Psoriasis With Etanercept

August 2011

https://jddonline.com/articles/dermatology/S1545961611P0866X

 

__________________________________

Psoriatic Arthritis in South Asians- Comparison with Caucasians of European Descent

https://acrabstracts.org/abstract/psoriatic-arthritis-in-south-asians-comparison-with-caucasians-of-european-descent/


__________________________________


The genetics of psoriasis, psoriatic arthritis and atopic dermatitis

April 2004

 

https://academic.oup.com/hmg/article/13/suppl_1/R43/617580

 

Abstract

Psoriasis and atopic dermatitis are chronic and relapsing inflammatory diseases of the skin associated with various immunologic abnormalities. Approximately 30% of psoriasis patients also have joint involvement, indicative of psoriatic arthritis. Genes and environment play a key role in the pathogenesis of these diseases. Genome-wide linkage scans have identified multiple loci linked to each disease and revealed overlap with psoriasis and atopic dermatitis susceptibility loci on chromosomes 1q21, 3q21, 17q25 and 20p12. The genes from these loci have not yet all been identified, or systematically tested for a role in psoriasis and atopic dermatitis; however, these locations suggest that some susceptibility factors lie within genes or gene families with common effects upon epithelial immunity. A strong HLA association is described for psoriasis, but not for atopic dermatitis. Knowledge of the genetic factors leading to these diseases will lead to an understanding of their variable age at onset, their waxing and waning and the variability of body surface environment. The effect of environmental triggers may also be understood once the altered pathways are elucidated. Genes implicated so far in atopic dermatitis are SPINK5, FcεRI-β and PHF11. Genes implicated in psoriasis so far are HLA-C, SLC9A3R1, NAT9, RAPTOR and SLC12A8. Genetic modifiers such as CARD15 may predispose to psoriatic arthritis.




__________________________________


Angiotensin-converting enzyme gene insertion/deletion polymorphism and susceptibility to psoriasis: a systematic review and meta-analysis

January 8, 2020

https://bmcmedgenet.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12881-019-0943-3

__________________________________

Racial differences in mole proneness

1989

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2566227/


Abstract

Mole counts were studied in relation to skin complexion in various racial groups. White children had a median total number of naevocytic naevi of 17.0, versus 2.5 in non-white children (p less than 0.001). Young white adults showed a similar mole proneness to that of coloured subjects (61.0 versus 16.0; p less than 0.001). With regard to moles greater than 2 mm diameter in the young-adult group, white subjects again exhibited a higher median count than non-white subjects (5.5 versus 1.0; p less than 0.001). There was an inverse gradient of mole counts in young adults from subjects of white complexion through those of mixed ancestry, Oriental ancestry, to those of Negroid descent. This study indicates that there is a strong racial background predisposing to the development of naevocytic naevi.



__________________________________


Racial differences in corneocytes. A comparison between black, white and oriental skin

1991

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1675524/



Abstract

It is well known that spontaneous desquamation and corneocyte size can reflect respectively stratum corneum cohesiveness and epidermal cell proliferation. The influence of skin pigmentation on these parameters has been investigated on the upper-outer arm of black, white and oriental volunteers, using the detergent scrub method. We found no difference between race in corneocyte surface area, a mean size of 900 microns 2 agreeing closely with that generally encountered in Whites on the upper-outer arm. By contrast, spontaneous desquamation is increased in black vis-à-vis white and oriental skin (factor 2.5, p less than 0.001). Taking into account the importance of the intercellular cement for the cohesion between corneocytes, racial differences in epidermal lipid composition should be investigated.



__________________________________


Which patients are most likely to develop hydatidiform moles?

Feb 16, 2018

https://www.medscape.com/answers/254657-95192/which-patients-are-most-likely-to-develop-hydatidiform-moles


Differences in the frequency of hydatidiform moles between ethnic groups have been reported internationally. In the United States, a cross-sectional study of 140 complete moles and 115 partial moles found that Asian women were more than twice as likely as white women to have a complete mole but were less likely to have a partial mole. Hispanic women were 60% less likely to have a complete mole. White women had the greatest risk of partial molar pregnancy. African-American and Hispanic women had similar risk of complete mole but when adjusted for age, African-American women had a marginally decreased risk.

Hydatidiform mole is a disease of pregnancy and therefore a disease of women.

__________________________________

Racial incidence of hydatidiform mole: A study in a contained polyracial community

June 1968

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/0002937868900689

 

__________________________________

Epidemiology of hydatidiform mole during early gestation

1986

https://www.ajog.org/article/0002-9378(86)90482-5/pdf



__________________________________

Pigmentary characteristics and moles in relation to melanoma risk.

July 2005

https://europepmc.org/article/med/15761869

 

__________________________________

Diagnosis and treatment of pigmentary disorders in Asian skin

2007

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17658433/

 

__________________________________

Pigmentary disorders in Asian skin: treatment with laser and intense pulsed light sources

2006

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17024294/


Abstract

The development of selective photothermolysis has enabled removal of targets such as melanin. Both lasers and intense pulsed light (IPL) sources have been used in the treatment of pigmented lesions, however careful selection is important to ensure success. This is especially true in darker skinned individuals where the risk of postinflammatory hyperpigmentation (PIH) is high. The advent of the Q-switched laser, IPL, and now fractional photothermolysis (Fraxel, Reliant Technologies) offers a variety of ways to treat epidermal and dermal pigmentary disorders.


__________________________________

The Asian dermatologic patient: review of common pigmentary disorders and cutaneous diseases

2009

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19354330/


__________________________________


The use of lasers and intense pulsed light sources for the treatment of acquired pigmentary lesions in Asians

2003

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14741828/


__________________________________

The Mongolian spot: a study of ethnic differences and a literature review

1981

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7028354/



__________________________________

The ethnic profile of patients with birthmarks reveals interaction of germline and postzygotic genetics

May 2017

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5485042/

 

Dear editor, GNA11 and GNAQ are highly homologous genes encoding different Gα subunits of heterotrimeric G‐proteins. We recently described postzygotic activating mutations in GNA11 or GNAQ as causes of phakomatosis pigmentovascularis (PPV), and GNAQ mosaicism as a cause of extensive dermal melanocytosis (EDM).1 GNAQ mosaicism has previously been found to cause Sturge–Weber syndrome (SWS) and isolated nonsyndromic port‐wine stain‐type capillary malformations.2 In all of these clinical phenotypes the mutations almost exclusively affect codons 183 of the protein products Gα_q and Gα₁₁.

 

What is not yet understood is how the same mutations can lead to such differing skin phenotypes, either vascular alone (SWS), pigmentary alone (EDM) or a combination of both (PPV). The existence of a common precursor cell leading to both the vascular and pigmentary birthmarks is likely, as the same mutation has been identified in both types of lesion in patients with PPV. In mosaic disorders we would usually therefore invoke the issue of the timing of the mutation as the cause of differing phenotypes, or in other words that the mutation leading to PPV would be expected to occur earlier in embryogenesis than that for SWS or EDM. If this were the case we would expect the multiorgan phenotype in PPV to be more severe than in SWS, owing to an earlier embryological mutation. This was suggested in one case series of PPV;3 however, owing to the well‐known phenomenon of dermal melanocytosis being overlooked as a normal finding by examining doctors, it is likely that PPV is currently underdiagnosed in comparison with SWS, and publications relating to PPV may therefore be biased towards severe cases. Even if timing of the mutation proves to be important once larger cohorts are collected, germline genetic factors could also contribute to the differences in phenotype observed from the same mutations.

 

Looking at our patient cohorts we hypothesized that ethnicity may be associated with a phenotype‐modifying effect in this spectrum of diseases. Although ethnicity is a loosely defined classification, it is already known to be clearly associated with self‐resolving dermal melanocytosis (Mongolian blue spots), which is far more common in Afro‐Caribbean than white populations.4 A bias towards nonwhite ethnicity was suggested in one previous study of PPV, but it was not systematically studied against control populations.

 

Ethnicity data are collected routinely upon attendance at our hospital, where patients and families choose their own ethnicity from a standard list. We have assumed that there should be no inherent bias in this choice relating to the type of birthmark with which the child presents. Ethnicity data were extracted for all patients seen in our department over a 2‐year period, between March 2011 and March 2013, with a diagnosis of SWS, isolated facial port‐wine stain, congenital melanocytic naevi, congenital epidermal naevi and infantile haemangioma. For the rarer conditions PPV and EDM, where patient numbers were small, we obtained information relating to all patients with the condition rather than restricting our observations to this time period, to maximize the size of this cohort.

 

A review of the clinical records was used to complete missing data where possible. To ensure that the common occurrence of self‐resolving Mongolian blue spots did not bias our data collection, dermal melanocytosis was considered to be relevant only where it was ‘atypical’. On the basis of observational studies of normal Mongolian blue spots4, 5 we have defined this as fulfilling any two of the following criteria: (i) involvement of sites other than only the lumbosacral area, (ii) persistence beyond the first 2 years of life, (iii) areas > 10 cm in diameter at birth and (iv) some areas of accentuated deep pigmentation with clearly defined borders. Examples of the clinical phenotypes for PPV and EDM are shown in Figure ​Figure11.

 

 he percentages of different ethnicities in our whole referral cohort revealed a substantial preponderance of white ethnicity in all birthmark groups, as would be expected for our geographical referral population, except for PPV and EDM (Fig. ​(Fig.2a).2a). In these birthmark groupings there were significantly fewer white patients; there were none in the EDM cohort and only three out of 18 in the PPV cohort. Although the numbers in these groups are relatively low, they are comparable with the numbers of nonwhite patients in all other birthmark groupings. Furthermore, statistical comparison of PPV or EDM and all other birthmark groupings revealed a significant difference in white vs. nonwhite ethnicity (P < 0·001, Fig. ​Fig.2b).2b). When only the port‐wine stain, SWS, PPV or EDM birthmarks were analysed (restricting the analysis to these, as we know they can be caused by GNAQ or GNA11 mosaicism) the same pattern is in evidence; logistic regression modelling of having a pigmentary component to the cutaneous phenotype produced an odds ratio for white ethnicity of 0·017 (95% confidence interval 0·005–0·060, P < 0·001). There was no effect of sex.

 

The mechanism of this association between cutaneous phenotype within this diagnostic spectrum and ethnicity is not yet clear. However, we hypothesize that germline ethnicity‐associated variants in pigment genes could be involved, perhaps including the melanocortin‐1 receptor gene MC1R, which encodes a G‐protein‐coupled receptor. Variants in MC1R are already known to modify the phenotype of congenital pigmentary disorders such as oculocutaneous albinism and congenital melanocytic naevi. Furthermore, although the canonical signalling pathway from MC1R is via cyclic AMP, there is some evidence that signalling via calcium release can occur, which could support this hypothesis of coupling of MC1R to Gα_q and Gα₁₁.

 

In conclusion, postzygotic mosaicism for GNA11 and GNAQ mutations causes an overlapping phenotypic spectrum of vascular and melanocytic birthmarks, with associated ophthalmological, neurological, overgrowth and malignant complications. Ethnicity appears to be associated with congenital phenotypic variation in the cutaneous component of this spectrum of mosaic disease.

__________________________________

Red, white and brown: Defining characteristics of common birthmarks will determine type and timing of treatment

February 5, 2011

https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/02/110205140624.htm


__________________________________


Reflectance confocal microscopy for pigmentary disorders

2010

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19889023/

 

__________________________________


Woman diagnoses cancerous mole on ankle through smartphone app

2017

https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/skinvision-skin-cancer-app-mole-dangerous-sun-cream-nikie-duddridge-a7879636.html

 

__________________________________

Moles on the body largely influenced by genetics, finds new study

August 14, 2019

https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2019/08/190814093900.htm

Summary:


    A new study has found that genes have a greater influence than previously thought not only on the number of moles you have but also where they are on your body.


__________________________________

Racial differences in six major subtypes of melanoma: descriptive epidemiology

August 30, 2016

https://bmccancer.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12885-016-2747-6


Abstract

Background

Melanoma accounts for the majority of skin cancer deaths. It has over thirty different subtypes. Different races have been observed to differ in multiple aspects of melanoma.
Methods

SEER (Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results) data on six major subtypes, namely melanoma in situ (MIS), superficial spreading melanoma (SSM), nodular melanoma (NM), lentigo maligna melanoma (LMM), acral lentiginous melanoma malignant (ALM), and malignant melanoma NOS (NOS), were analyzed. The racial groups studied included NHW (non-Hispanic white), HW (Hispanic white), Black, and Asian/PI (Pacific Islanders). Univariate and multivariate analysis was conducted to quantify racial differences in patients’ characteristics, incidence, treatment, and survival.
Results

Significant racial differences are observed in patients’ characteristics. For all subtypes except for ALM, NHWs have the highest incidence rates, followed by HWs, while Blacks have the lowest. For ALM, HWs have the highest rate, followed by NHWs. In stratified analysis, interaction between gender and race is observed. For the first five subtypes and localized and regional NOS, the dominating majority of patients had surgery, while for distant NOS, the distribution of treatment is more scattered. Significant racial differences are observed for distant ALM and NOS. For MIS, SSM, NM, LMM, and ALM, there is no significant racial difference in survival. For NOS, significant racial differences in survival are observed for the localized and regional stages, with NHWs having the best and Blacks having the worst five-year survival rates.
Conclusions

Racial differences exist for the six major melanoma subtypes in the U.S. More data collection and analysis are needed to fully describe and interpret the differences across racial groups and across subtypes.


__________________________________

THE PROBLEM OF THE PIGMENTED MOLE AND THE MALIGNANT MELANOMA

1963

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14058312/


__________________________________

Melanocytic nevus density in Asian, Indo-Pakistani, and white children: the Vancouver Mole Study

1991

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1918489/

 
__________________________________


Dermoscopy in black people

2006

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16965417/


Conclusions:

Darker pigmentation of the skin does not impede the identification of single dermoscopic features. As in lighter-skinned populations, dermoscopy in black people can also lead to early and accurate diagnosis of melanoma, thereby significantly reducing the number of unnecessary excisions.


__________________________________


Skin cancer in people of color

https://www.aad.org/public/diseases/skin-cancer/types/common/melanoma/skin-color

__________________________________

Racial/ethnic differences in multiple-gene sequencing results for hereditary cancer risk

July 2017

https://www.nature.com/articles/gim201796


__________________________________


Ask the Expert: Is There a Skin Cancer Crisis in People of Color?

July 5, 2019

https://www.skincancer.org/blog/ask-the-expert-is-there-a-skin-cancer-crisis-in-people-of-color/


Q: While all types of skin cancer are less common in people of color, their outcomes are dramatically worse. What accounts for this gap?

Skin cancers are less prevalent in nonwhite racial ethnic groups, but when they occur, they tend to be diagnosed at a later stage and, as a result, have a worse prognosis. One study, for example, found an average five-year melanoma survival rate of only 65 percent in Black people versus 91 percent in white people. Another showed that late-stage melanoma diagnoses are more common in Hispanic and Black patients than in non-Hispanic white patients.

First, there’s a lower public awareness overall of the risk of skin cancer among individuals of color. Second, from the perspective of health-care providers, there’s often a lower index of suspicion for skin cancer in patients of color, because the chances of it actually are smaller. So these patients may be less likely to get regular, full-body skin exams. And third, the places on the body where skin cancers tend to occur in people of color are often in less sun-exposed, more out-of-the-way areas, which makes detection more difficult. For example, the most common location for melanoma in patients of color is the lower extremities — the soles of the feet in particular.


__________________________________

Melanoma More Common In Whites, But Minorities Less likely To Survive

May 16, 2017

https://www.chicagotribune.com/lifestyles/health/sc-melanomas-in-minorities-health-0524-20170516-story.html

 

__________________________________

Cancer Facts & Figures for African Americans 2019-2021

https://www.cancer.org/content/dam/cancer-org/research/cancer-facts-and-statistics/cancer-facts-and-figures-for-african-americans/cancer-facts-and-figures-for-african-americans-2019-2021.pdf

 

_____________________________________

_____________________________________

__________________________________

__________________________________

__________________________________


Section 12: Hair & Genetics

__________________________________

__________________________________

__________________________________

_____________________________________

_____________________________________

 

PROCEEDINGS OF THE INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON FORENSIC HAIR COMPARISONS

1985

https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/Digitization/116592NCJRS.pdf


__________________________________

Diversity in human hair growth, diameter, colour and shape. An in vivo study on young adults from 24 different ethnic groups observed in the five continents

April, 2016

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27019510/

 
__________________________________

Unique Hair Properties that Emerge from Combinations of Multiple Races

2019

https://www.mdpi.com/2079-9284/6/2/36


__________________________________

The Glory of Ancient India Stems from her Aryan Blood: French anthropologists ‘construct’ the racial history of India for the world

September 2016

https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/modern-asian-studies/article/glory-of-ancient-india-stems-from-her-aryan-blood-french-anthropologists-construct-the-racial-history-of-india-for-the-world/6C87D9F50B387BDFDBBC28D15567FC64

 

__________________________________

“Indian racism towards Black people is almost worse than white peoples’ racism” An Interview with Arundhati Roy

June 8, 2020

https://www.dalitcamera.com/indian-racism-towards-black-people-is-almost-worse-than-white-peoples-racism/

 

__________________________________

Let’s talk about racism | North Indians are ‘gora-chitta’, dark skin is for the South

May 24, 2017

https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/lets-talk-about-racism-you-look-south-indian-but-your-sister-looks-indian/story-4DgxcpTrZPC7db9rqziWgM.html

 

 __________________________________

 

Why aren't Indians also classified as "black" ?

what does hair texture have to do with anything?
2014

http://www.city-data.com/forum/world/2232957-why-arent-indians-also-classified-black-4.html


__________________________________

How Black People Came To Believe 4C Was A "Bad Hair" Texture

March 4, 2019

https://www.bustle.com/style/how-black-people-came-to-believe-4c-was-a-bad-hair-texture-16265631


"Bad hair" is a phrase that has long plagued the black community, especially those who have 4C hair. The cruel term insinuates that there is something inherently wrong with afro-textured coils, which can influence those with kinky hair to develop feelings of disdain for their own natural texture.

While 4C hair has been seen as "bad," looser type 2 and 3 curls have long been praised as "good hair," and a curl type those with kinkier tresses should strive to achieve. This has naturally created a texture hierarchy, with an undoubted mental toll.


"There was a period in time that I hated my hair," Charlene Akuamoah, a stylist and one of the founders of fashion label broke & living, who has 4C hair, tells Bustle. "I thought it was so difficult to manage: It was rough, the curls were too tight, it didn't look 'presentable,' it was always dry, and I felt like I looked better with straight hair." The 30-year-old explains that many of those self-hating thoughts came as a result of relaxing her hair for over 20 years — and thus only ever seeing her hair straightened for the majority of her life. "I [thought] that my hair had to be tamed," she adds...



__________________________________

Hair Loss in Black Women: Tips from an Expert

https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/wellness-and-prevention/hair-loss-in-black-women-tips-from-an-expert


__________________________________

Roots of tension: race, hair, competition and black beauty stores

April 25, 2017

https://www.mprnews.org/story/2017/04/25/black-beauty-shops-korean-suppliers-roots-of-tension-mn


__________________________________

Furious Walmart Customers Post Videos of Stores Locking Up African-American Beauty Products

2018

https://www.businessinsider.com/walmart-locking-up-african-american-hair-products-2018-1



__________________________________

Why do black people have curly hair?

Mar 19, 2016

https://www.herald.co.zw/why-do-black-people-have-curly-hair/


__________________________________


The what, why and how of curly hair: a review

Nov 2019

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6894537/


__________________________________



Afro-textured hair

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afro-textured_hair

 

Afro-textured hair, or kinky hair is the natural hair texture of certain populations in Africa and the African diaspora. Despite its name, this hair texture is also found in some parts of Oceania and Southeast Asia. Each strand of this hair type grows in a tiny, angle-like helix shape. The overall effect is such that, compared to straight, wavy or curly hair, afro-textured hair appears denser.

 

 

 

 

 

                                                                     Global hair texture distribution

 

The chart below is the most commonly used chart to help determine hair types:

 

Type	Hair texture         Hair Description

1a	Straight (fine)	Very soft, shiny, hard to hold a curl, hair tends to be oily, hard to damage.
1b	Straight (medium)	Has much body. (i.e. more volume, more full).
1c	Straight (coarse)	Hard to curl (i.e. bone straight).
2a	Wavy (loose waves)	Can accomplish various styles. Loose "S" pattern. Hair sticks close to the head.
2b	Wavy (defined waves)	A bit resistant to styling. Hair has more of a defined "S" pattern. Hair Tends to be frizzy.
2c	Wavy (wide waves)	Hair has wider waves. Resistant to styling. Hair tends to be frizzy.
3a	Curly (loose curls)	Thick and full with much body. Definite curl pattern. Hair tends to be frizzy. Can have a combination texture.
3b	Curly (tight curls)	Medium amount of space of the curls. Can have a combined texture.
3c	Curly (corkscrews)	Tight curls in corkscrews. The curls are very tightly curled.
4a	Kinky-coily (defined coil)	Tightly coiled. Has a very defined "o"-shaped pattern.
4b	Kinky-coily (z coil)	Tightly coiled. Little less defined kink pattern. Has more of a "Z"-shaped pattern.
4c	Kinky-coily (tight coil)	Tightly coiled. Almost no visible defined kink pattern, unless seen from up close. Has more of a very tight "o"-shaped pattern.

__________________________________

Black women's hair: the main scalp dermatoses and aesthetic practices in women of African ethnicity

2015

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4560533/


Abstract

Afro-ethnic hair is different from Caucasian and Asian hair and has unique features. Ethnic hair is more prone to certain conditions or diseases. Such diseases are not only related to the fragile inner structure of the hair, but also to the cultural habits of hairstyles that often exert traction forces upon the pilosebaceous follicle. Women with African hair subject their hair to chemical treatments such as hair straightening and relaxing, and thus modify the structure of their hair shaft, making it more susceptible to damage. For this reason, hair complaints are common among black women and represent a diagnostic challenge to the dermatologist, requiring a thorough clinical examination of the hair and scalp, and a detailed medical history of the patient. The purpose of this review is to warn of the potential side effects and sequelae related to hairstyles and hair treatments used by black women, and to highlight the major diseases that affect this ethnicity.



__________________________________

Microscopic Characteristics Of Scalp Hair Subjected To Cultural Styling Methods In Ghanaian African Females

August 1, 2019

https://www.dovepress.com/microscopic-characteristics-of-scalp-hair-subjected-to-cultural-stylin-peer-reviewed-fulltext-article-CCID


__________________________________

African hair growth parameters

September 2001

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/11814025_African_hair_growth_parameters


Abstract

Hair growth parameters have been studied mostly in caucasian hair, whereas few data on African hair have been reported in the literature. To evaluate hair growth characteristics of African volunteers born in Africa. Thirty-eight young adults (19 women, 19 men, mean +/- SD age 27 +/- 10 years), native of central and western Africa, took part in the study. Phototrichograms were performed in order to record three parameters of hair growth: hair density, telogen percentage and rate of growth. For each volunteer, three regions of the scalp, namely vertex, temporal and occipital areas, were assessed. Hair density varied from 90 to 290 hairs cm(-2), with higher counts on the vertex. No significant difference between men and women was recorded. Telogen percentage showed wide variations, from 2 to 46%, with higher levels on the temporal area and in men. The rate of growth fluctuated from 150 to 363 microm day(-1) with no difference related either to gender or to scalp region. These data were compared with those previously obtained in caucasian volunteers of comparable age, and showed significant differences between the two ethnic groups in all three parameters studied. Hair density in African volunteers was lower than that in caucasians (mean +/- SD 190 +/- 40 and 227 +/- 55 hairs cm(-2), respectively). African hair grew at a much slower rate than caucasian hair (mean +/- SD 256 +/- 44 vs. 396 +/- 55 microm day(-1)), and telogen counts were frequently higher in African hair (mean +/- SD 18 +/- 9% vs. 14 +/- 11%). This study demonstrated significant differences between African and caucasian hair growth parameters, which might suggest a trend towards increased hair loss in Africans, even though it contrasts with a lower and slower incidence of the development of alopecia in Africans.



__________________________________



Hair Density in African Americans

June 1999

https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamadermatology/fullarticle/477885


Abstract

Background  The meager data on normal hair density in humans have been gathered from a predominantly white population. Examination of scalp biopsy specimens from African Americans suggests that hair density in this group may be lower than in whites. This study was performed to quantify any differences between white and African American patients.


Conclusions  

Hair density in African Americans is significantly lower than that in whites, which must be taken into consideration when evaluating a biopsy specimen from an African American patient. Data previously collected from white patients may not provide adequate guidance when evaluating scalp biopsy specimens from African Americans and could lead to an incorrect diagnosis.

ALTHOUGH the diagnosis of hair disease depends on the comparison of normal with abnormal findings, data on normal hair density are incomplete. After studying hundreds of scalp biopsy specimens from African American patients, I have observed that hair density tends to be lower in this racial group than in whites. Therefore, clinically and histologically normal hair density on biopsy specimens from African Americans would be labeled as abnormally low (ie, demonstrating alopecia) if existing data were to be applied. This study was performed to quantify any differences between white and African American patients.


__________________________________

Clicks outrage: From slavery to colonialism, a history of myths about black hair

Sep 8, 2020

https://www.iol.co.za/lifestyle/style-beauty/hair/clicks-outrage-from-slavery-to-colonialism-a-history-of-myths-about-black-hair-41037ce8-3b50-40dd-9771-d1e51416ab01


__________________________________

Altered Beauty

African-Caribbean women decolonizing racialized aesthetics in Toronto, Canada

 

 Figure 2. Cook's "Lightning" Soap ad.

https://yourreview.journals.yorku.ca/index.php/yourreview/article/view/40352/36553


__________________________________

The truth about black hair

September 1, 2016

“If your hair is relaxed, white people are relaxed.”

https://africanarguments.org/2016/09/01/the-truth-about-black-hair/

 

__________________________________


WHY AFRICAN AMERICAN WOMEN TRY TO OBTAIN ‘GOOD HAIR’

2007

http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.473.1938&rep=rep1&type=pdf


__________________________________

Race, Stigma, and the Politics of Black Girls Hair

2018

https://cornerstone.lib.mnsu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1762&context=etds

__________________________________


African and Native American Hair-type; THE COMB TEST

March 14, 2019

https://aalbc.com/tc/topic/5763-african-and-native-american-hair-type-the-comb-test/


__________________________________



Is hair texture determined by genetics?

https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/understanding/traits/hairtexture/


Genetic factors appear to play a major role in determining hair texture—straight, wavy, or curly—and the thickness of individual strands of hair. Studies suggest that different genes influence hair texture and thickness in people of different ethnic backgrounds. For example, normal variations (polymorphisms) in two genes, EDAR and FGFR2, have been associated with differences in hair thickness in Asian populations. A polymorphism in another gene, TCHH, appears to be related to differences in hair texture in people of northern European ancestry. It is likely that many additional genes contribute to hair texture and thickness in various populations.

Several genetic syndromes are characterized by unusual hair texture. These syndromes are caused by mutations in genes that play roles in hair structure and stability, including genes associated with desmosomes (specialized cell structures that hold hair cells together), keratins (proteins that provide strength and resilience to hair strands), and chemical signaling pathways involving a molecule called lysophosphatidic acid (LPA), which promotes hair growth. Genetic syndromes that feature altered hair texture include:

    Autosomal recessive hypotrichosis (caused by mutations in the DSG4, LIPH, or LPAR6 gene)

    Keratoderma with woolly hair (caused by mutations in the JUP, DSP, DSC2, or KANK2 gene)

    Monilethrix (caused by mutations in the DSG4, KRT81, KRT83, or KRT86 gene)

    Uncombable hair syndrome (caused by mutations in the PADI3, TCHH, or TGM3 gene)

Researchers speculate that the genes associated with these disorders probably also contribute to normal variations in hair texture and thickness, although little is known about the roles these genes play in normal hair.

Factors other than genetics can also influence hair texture and thickness. Hormones, certain medications, and chemicals such as hair relaxers can alter the characteristics of a person’s hair. Hair texture and thickness can also change with age.

__________________________________



ELI5: Why do asians usually have no body hair and arabs have a lot?

https://www.reddit.com/r/explainlikeimfive/comments/1l9525/eli5why_do_asians_usually_have_no_body_hair_and/


__________________________________


Race Card: Asians with Perms

March 11, 2011

https://www.bitchmedia.org/post/race-card-asians-with-perms

 
__________________________________

Korean hair salon dragged for turning straight hair into Afro-textured hair

Nov 6, 2019

https://www.dailydot.com/irl/hippie-buddha-hair-cultural-appropriation/

__________________________________


Asian hair vs Caucasian hair | The 6 Most Common Differences

https://hairinstructions.com/asian-hair-vs-caucasian-hair/


Sometimes it is easy to see the differences in hair.  If you have curly hair, you will take care of it differently than if your hair is straight.   But what about straight hair?  Are there any differences between the straight hair that whites have and that of Asians?

How are Asian and Caucasian hair different? Even though straight Asian and Caucasian hair might appear the same at first glance, if you look closely, you will find several differences between them.  These include

    The number of cuticle layers
    The flatness of the cuticles
    The distance between each of the cuticles
    The way in which the hair breaks
    The reasons behind why the hair breaks
    Each hair type requires different methods of care



__________________________________


A study of cross sections of head hair from some caucasoid and mongoloid populations of Assam, India

1974

https://www.jstor.org/stable/25756127?seq=1


__________________________________


Morphology and properties of Asian and Caucasian hair

July 2006

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/6832084_Morphology_and_properties_of_Asian_and_Caucasian_hair


__________________________________


Asian Hair: A Review of Structures, Properties, and Distinctive Disorders

April 24, 2020

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7187942/

 

Abstract

Asian hair is known for its straightness, dark pigmentation, and large diameter. The cuticle layer in Asians is thicker with more compact cuticle cells than that in Caucasians. Asian hair generally exhibits the strongest mechanical properties, and its cross-sectional area is determined greatly by genetic variations, particularly from the ectodysplasin A receptor gene. However, knowledge on Asian hair remains unclear with limited studies. This article aimed to review and summarize the characteristics and properties of Asian hair. It also aimed to discuss hair disorders including linear lupus panniculitis and pseudocyst of the scalp that occur distinctively in Asian populations.

Cross-Sectional Area

Asian hair has the greatest cross-sectional area among the three human hair types. African and Caucasian hairs have relatively equal cross-sectional areas that are smaller than Asian hair.1,3 Asian hair possesses the most circular cross-sectional shape and the greatest mean ellipticity, calculated based on small diameter and large diameter ratio, indicating that it is more oval than African and Caucasian hairs.3

Genetic studies found that hair thickness in Asian populations is linked to genetic variations. Fujimoto et al observed a correlation between a nonsynonymous single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) in ectodysplasin A receptor (EDAR) gene and hair thickness in Asians in a genome-wide analysis.17 The SNP (rs3827760) is located at the 1540th nucleotide from the transcription site (1540T/C) in the EDAR gene causing the substitution between valine and alanine (p.Val370Ala) and shows a strong positive selection in Asians in several studies.17,18 The 1540C allele has high frequency only in Chinese and Japanese, but not in Nigerian or European ancestry.17 The 1540T/C shows a significant association with the cross-sectional area and hair diameter in Thais and Indonesians, whereas Melanesians, whose hair diameter is similar to African and European hairs, show a lesser 1540C allele frequency.19 The cross-sectional area of hair is associated with the diversity of genotypes rather than the individual’s ethnicity, and EDAR gene is a strong determinant of hair thickness in Asians.17,19 CC genotype was reported with the highest values of mean area, followed by TC and TT genotypes, respectively. Subsequent research confirmed that EDAR gene is a genetic contributor of hair thickness as the EDAR370A (1540C)-derived cells demonstrate a superior ability to activate NF-κB expression and enhancement of signal potency compared with the EDAR370V (1540T)-derived cells.20 In vivo, transgenic mice with EDAR370A expression produce their hair phenotype mimicking the Asian hair fiber. The high output from EDAR370A may influence the hair morphology in Asian populations. Besides, the hair thickness in Asian populations is also linked to the FGFR2 polymorphism. Multiple regression analysis when considering the effect of EDAR revealed the significant associations of both hair diameter and cross-sectional area, and the SNP in FGFR2 (rs4752566).

__________________________________

Why Do Asians Have Thicker Hair Fibers?

Nov 5, 2007

https://news.softpedia.com/news/Why-Asian-People-Have-Thicker-Hair-Fibers-69986.shtml

Being bald or boasting a "leonine mane", having straight or curled hair, blond or black? it's all in the genes. And while you're admiring the silky hair of the East Asian girls, you should know one fact: their hair fibers are 30% larger than those of Africans and 50% than those of the Europeans.



__________________________________


A Thick Head of Hair Is in the Genes

Nov. 1, 2007

https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2007/11/thick-head-hair-genes


__________________________________

 

You Look Asiatic. Are you Asian? Q & A

Apr 25, 2019

 

 

https://www.sonyamarlene.com/post/2019/04/25/you-look-asiatic-are-you-asian-q-a

__________________________________

 

"No Certain Way  to Tell Japanese From Chinese": Racist Statements and the Marking of Difference

https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/130354283.pdf


__________________________________

Why do Asians and Asian-Americans look different? Even though the Asian-Americans may be of 100% Asian ethnicity, what causes changes in looks between these two groups of people?

2017

https://www.quora.com/Why-do-Asians-and-Asian-Americans-look-different-Even-though-the-Asian-Americans-may-be-of-100-Asian-ethnicity-what-causes-changes-in-looks-between-these-two-groups-of-people

 

__________________________________

ASIAN PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

http://factsanddetails.com/asian/cat62/sub407/item2608.html

__________________________________

 

 Light skin in Japanese culture


https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light_skin_in_Japanese_culture

 

Bihaku is a Japanese term meaning "beautifully white" which was coined in the early 1900s with the emergence of skin whitening products and cosmetics. Even in ancient Japanese Haiku there have been numerous references to this.

__________________________________

Ganguro

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ganguro

 

 Ganguro is a fashion trend among young Japanese women that started in the mid-1990s, distinguished by a dark tan and contrasting make-up liberally applied by fashionistas.

The Shibuya and Ikebukuro districts of Tokyo were the centres of ganguro fashion; it was started by rebellious youth who contradicted the traditional Japanese concept of beauty; pale skin, dark hair and neutral makeup tones. Ganguro instead tanned their skin, bleached their hair and used much colourful makeup in unusual ways.

 

__________________________________


Why the Trope of Rebellious Asian Women With Colorful Hair Is Problematic
"Show us that Asian women are just as diverse a group as any other."

May 3, 2018

https://www.teenvogue.com/story/asian-women-colorful-hair-trope-problem


__________________________________


The "Asian Character Hair Streak" Is Real And A Huge Problem

People keep giving rebellious Asian characters the same hair and it's really damn frustrating.

2017

https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/krishrach/people-want-to-know-why-asian-cartoon-characters-all-have


__________________________________


The Best Hair Colors for Asians

Jul 19, 2019

https://bellatory.com/hair/The-Best-Hair-Colors-for-Asians

Maroon
Auburn
Light Brown Hair with Gold Tones
What About Blonde?


Which of these hair colors are you most likely to try?

    32% Maroon red
    29% Light brown
    18% Medium brown
    21% Dark brown


__________________________________

Why Don't Asia's Heroes Look Asian?

Mar 15, 1999

http://content.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,2054181,00.html

 

__________________________________

Does Chemical Lightening Affect the Structure of Human Hair?

https://www.sciencebuddies.org/science-fair-projects/project-ideas/MatlSci_p020/materials-science/hair-bleaching-damage


Abstract

Does your hair go crazy when the weather turns damp? Did you know that strands of hair can relax and lengthen when the humidity increases and then contract again when the humidity decreases? In fact, hair strands can be used as the basis for a hygrometer, a device which measures the humidity level in the air. Can a human hair hygrometer also detect changes in hair structure caused by chemical lightening? This project shows you how to find out.

Objective

The goal of this project is to determine whether chemical lightening treatments affect the natural elasticity of human hair.



__________________________________

Microaggressions that mixed-race people face when dating

May 1, 2017

https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/post-nation/wp/2017/05/01/dating-mixed-race-microaggressions/

 

__________________________________



Assessment of hair density and caliber in Caucasian and Asian female subjects with female pattern hair loss by using the Folliscope

January 2012

https://www.jaad.org/article/S0190-9622(11)00546-9/pdf

 
__________________________________



Racial differences in scalp hair.

2008

https://mathildasanthropologyblog.wordpress.com/2008/07/03/racial-differences-in-scalp-hair/


__________________________________


Ethnic differences in hair fiber and hair follicles


https://www.keratin.com/aa/aa002.shtml


Each individual is unique and hair production rate, size, and shape differs for everyone, but in general there are some differences in the nature of hair fiber for people of different ethnic backgrounds.

Asian hair is on average the thickest and most coarse hair compared to Caucasian and African American hair. It is almost always straight and circular in cross section. The density of Asian hair on the scalp (follicles per unit area of skin) is less than that typically observed in Caucasians. The density of hair follicles in African Americans is also somewhat lower than for Caucasians on average. At the lowest end of the spectrum the density of Asian may be just 90,000 scalp follicles and rarely gets above 120,000 scalp follicles.

Caucasian hair can be quite variable in its presentation with straight, wavy or curly hair. The fiber can be circular or oval in cross section and is on average thinner than Asian hair. Hair follicle density varies and density can be approximately related to hair color. Red haired people have the least dense scalp hair growth of Caucasians, blonds the most dense and brown haired people somewhere in the middle. Denstiy can range from 100,000-150,000 scalp hair follicles

African American hair is frequently tightly coiled, or spiral hair. In cross section it is elliptical or almost flat and ribbon-like in some cases. This means that there is more strength and rigidity to the fiber across the area of greatest cross section but the hair is much more pliable across the narrow section. This results in the curls of hair all naturally flexing and coiling along the ribbon while there is little or no coiling from side to side.

Different hair fiber types are produced by different hair follicles. Large, straight hair follicles with a circular cross section produce thick straight hair. Curly, flat hair follicles make curly elliptical or ribbon shaped cross section hair. Many African Americans have very curly, flattened hair follicles in their skin that produce highly coiled hair. Some research suggests that the hair follicles are actually spiral/spring shaped if you were able to look down the length of these hair follicles.

The shape of the hair follicle acts as a mold for the creation of the hair fiber. Deep in the hair follicle, where cells are added to the fiber at the root, the hair is soft and pliable. The cells of the fiber take the shape of the surrounding hair follicle sheath. As the cells are squashed together and keratinized, the chemical bonds form and hold the hair fiber into the shape of the hair follicle. Hence curly hair follicles make curly hair fibers. Don't ask what makes curly hair follicles because we don't know! There might also be racial differences in the chemical composition of the fiber. Some research studies suggest African American hair has a greater amount of low sulfur protein compared to high sulfur protein than observed in Asian or Caucasian individuals. However, other more recent studies have not found a significant difference in the sulfur content of hair fiber from people of different ethnicities.

People with very coiled hair often claim it seems to weather more rapidly with cuticle flaking and deterioration in hair quality. In part this is probably due to the coling putting stress on the hair fiber cuticle. The outer side of a coiled hair has cuticle that is stretched thin and the scales are relatively exposed and easy to catch and damage as when bushing for example. In contrast, the cuticle in the inner side of a coiled hair is relatively thick and scrunched together. Because the hair on the outer side of the coil is so thin and stretched it takes less physical or chemcial action to flake and damage the cuticle exposing the softer cortex of the hair underneath.

If anything, African American hair follicles produce more oils and sebum than follicles in other ethnic groups, but the oils are not evenly distributed along the length of the hair fiber because of its coiled shape. As a result, the hair fiber is typically very dry Consequently, African Americans are more likely to need hair oils to supplement their natural oil production and help keep the hair fiber flexible. In addition, tight spiral hair is difficult to brush and comb. Using oils helps reduce the friction and static from combing and make the hair more manageable. African Americans often find they need to use specially formulated oils and shampoos. African American hair responds differently than Caucasian and Asian hair and preferred grooming products contain humectants and mild cleansing agents while avoiding harsh plant oils or harsh detergents such as sodium lauryl sulfate.


__________________________________


The Internal Structure of Hair and its Interpretation by Tensile Strength and DSC Measurements

http://www.thecosmeticchemist.com/education/hair_care_technology/the_internal_structure_of_hair.html

 

__________________________________


Factors affecting the strength of hair

https://www.scienceprojects.org/factors-affecting-the-strength-of-hair/


__________________________________

Study of elephant, capybara, human hair finds that thicker hair isn't always stronger

December 11, 2019

https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2019/12/191211115532.htm

__________________________________

 

WHY HUMANS HAVE HAIR LIKE ANIMALS AND BLACK PEOPLE DON'T

https://www.blogtalkradio.com/mwwradio144/2019/10/04/why-humans-have-hair-like-animals-and-black-people-dont


WHY DO HUMANS HAVE HAIR LIKE ANIMALS  AND BLACK PEOPLE DON'T? ARE HUMANS ANIMALS? DO BLACK PEOPLE HAVE THE ANIMAL GENETIC? ARE BLACK PEOPLE REALLY PARY OF THE HUMAN RACE? ARE HUMANS AWARE OF THIS ANIMAL GENETIC?


__________________________________

Caucasian Hair, Negro Hair, and Wool: Similarities and Differences

May 10, 1966

http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.482.7515&rep=rep1&type=pdf


__________________________________


What is the difference between hair and fur?

February 20, 2001

https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/what-is-the-difference-be/


Scientific American writer Kate Wong spoke with mammalogist Nancy Simmons of the American Museum of Natural History in New York City about this question. An edited transcript of the interview follows.


__________________________________

 

Forensic differentiation of human and animal hair via ATR FT-IR spectroscopy and chemometrics

https://atlasofscience.org/forensic-differentiation-of-human-and-animal-hair-via-atr-ft-ir-spectroscopy-and-chemometrics/



__________________________________


Best Practice Manual for the Microscopic Examination and Comparison of Human and Animal Hair

November 2015

https://enfsi.eu/wp-content/uploads/2016/09/5._microscopic_examination_and_comparison_of_human_and___animal_hair_0.pdf


__________________________________

Determination of different animal species hair viscoelastic properties

January 2013

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/289979529_Determination_of_different_animal_species_hair_viscoelastic_properties

 

__________________________________


Ethnicity and hair structure

https://activilong.com/en/content/96-ethnicity-and-hair-structure


The 3 ethno-hair profiles

There are 3 “original” ethno-hair profiles, each with their own characteristics: color, texture, structure and even implantation in the scalp…

Due to these differences, hair does not grow in the same way or at the same speed in people of different ethnic origins.

 

 

 

Asian hair

Asian hair is usually straight and either dark brown or black in color. It grows perpendicularly to the scalp. This hair type has the fastest growth rate at approximately 1.4 centimeters per month.        
A strand of Asian hair has a somewhat round, even shape.      
Nonetheless, Asian hair has the lowest density of the three ethnicities.

Caucasian hair

Caucasian hair can be straight, wavy or curly. Its color can vary from blond to dark brown. This hair type grows diagonally and at a rate of about 1.2 centimeters per month.

Caucasian hair strands are oval in shape.            
Caucasian hair density is the highest of the three ethnic categories and is therefore the fullest.

 
African hair

African hair is generally characterized by tight curls and kinks, and grows almost parallel to the scalp. This hair type has the slowest growth rate, 0.9 centimeters per month, due to its spiral structure that causes it to curl upon itself during growth. An African hair strand has a flattened shape.

African hair has a much higher density than Asian hair.

__________________________________

Ethnic variation in vellus hair follicle size and distribution

2006

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16679817/


__________________________________


Chemical and Physical Properties of Hair: Comparisons Between Asian, Black, and Caucasian Hair

December 2017

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/311487742_Chemical_and_Physical_Properties_of_Hair_Comparisons_Between_Asian_Black_and_Caucasian_Hair

__________________________________

Nanoscale characterization of human hair and hair conditioners

January 2008

https://nlbb.engineering.osu.edu/sites/nlbb.osu.edu/files/uploads/lowres_pims_hairrev_bb_08.pdf

AbstractHuman hair is a nanocomposite biological fiber. Hair care products such as shampoos and con-ditioners, along with damaging processes such as chemical dyeing and permanent wave treatments,affect the maintenance and grooming process and are important to study because they alter manyhair properties. Nanoscale characterization of the cellular structure, mechanical properties, and mor-phological, frictional, and adhesive properties (tribological properties) of hair are essential to eval-uate and develop better cosmetic products, and to advance the understanding of biological andcosmetic science. The atomic/friction force microscope (AFM/FFM) and nanoindenter have becomeimportant tools for studying the micro/nanoscale properties of human hair. In this review article, wepresent a comprehensive review of structural, mechanical, and tribological properties of various hairand skin as a function of ethnicity, damage, conditioning treatment, and various environments.

__________________________________


Current research on ethnic hair


https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/b17c/85cb51337fdd910ce6dbc9c2212565757102.pdf


__________________________________

Assessing cortisol from hair samples in a large observational cohort: The Whitehall II study

November 2016

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0306453016304619

 

__________________________________


A Study of the Size and Shape of Cross Sections of Hair from Four Races of Men’

https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/handle/2027.42/37472/1330190405_ftp.pdf;jsessionid=057EA6E3D30DB46FB68292FB5E760360?sequence=1


__________________________________


Hair Loss Differences and Ethnicity

November 4, 2016

https://rhrli.com/blog/hair-loss-differences-and-ethnicity/

 

__________________________________

Ethnic Considerations in Hair Restoration Surgery

2019

https://www.facialplasticsurgerymiami.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/ethnic.pdf

__________________________________

Thinning Hair and Ethnicity – Uniqueness in Hair Types… Common Susceptibility to Hair Loss/Balding

Sep 27, 2016

https://naturalchoicehair.ca/ethnicity-uniqueness-in-hair/

There are three main classifications of hair type based on race: African hair, Asian hair, and Caucasian hair.  While each classification of hair type consists of unique features/qualities, each classification is subject to thinning and balding over a man or women’s lifecycle.

Uniqueness of Each of the Three Classifications of Hair Type:
African Hair Type	Asian Hair Type	Caucasian Hair Type
Approximate number of hairs on cranium – 50,000-100,000 hairs.	Approximate number of hairs on cranium – 80,000-100,000 hairs.	Approximate number of hairs on cranium – 85,000 to 145,000.
Approximate growth per month – 0.2 cm.	Approximate growth per month – 1.3 cm.	Approximate growth per month – 1.2 cm.
Scalp hair per square centimeter (density) – 70,000 scalp follicles and rarely above 90,000.  30 to 40% less than Caucasians.	Scalp hair per square centimeter (density) – 90,000 scalp follicles and rarely gets above 120,000 scalp follicles. 20 to 30% less than Caucasians.	Scalp hair per square centimeter (density) –   100,000-150,000 scalp hair follicles.  20-30% more scalp hair per square centimeter than Asians and 30-40% more than African and African-American people.
Thickness – Thin and almost flat in cross section (tape like).	Thickness – The thickest and coarsest compared to Caucasian and African American hair as measured by diameter, with more and denser cuticle outer layers on each hair shaft.	Thickness – Thin by comparison to Asian but thicker than African.
Texture and Shape – Typically oval-shaped and tightly coiled.  Different hair fiber types are produced by different hair follicles. Large, straight hair follicles with a circular cross section produce thick straight hair.  Curly, flat hair follicles make curly elliptical or ribbon shaped cross section hair.  Angle of growth is small, almost parallel to the scalp.	Texture and Shape – Typically straight and circular in cross section.  Grows perpendicularly across the scalp.	Texture and Shape – Variable in its presentation with straight, wavy or curly hair. The fiber can be circular or oval in cross section.   Grows out of the skull at an oblique angle.

__________________________________

ETHNIC AND GENDER CONSIDERATIONS IN HAIR TRANSPLANTATION

https://ishrs.org/2008/06/01/ethnic-and-gender-considerations-in-hair-transplantation-2/

 

__________________________________


Differences in Hair Ageing Around the World

Mar 24, 2015

https://medium.com/@beautytmr/differences-in-hair-ageing-around-the-world-5d7033235330


__________________________________


Is it possible to identify gender and ethnicity via hair elements?

2014

https://www.future-science.com/doi/pdf/10.4155/bio.14.244


__________________________________

Race, Rather than Skin Pigmentation, Predicts Facial Hair Growth in Women

May 20, 2014

https://jcadonline.com/race-rather-than-skin-pigmentation-predicts-facial-hair-growth-in-women/



__________________________________



This Expert Claims That Beards Are Actually Pubic Hair. Sorry Guys!

Mar 19, 2016

https://www.scoopwhoop.com/Beard-Is-Actually-Pubic-Hair-Because-Science/


All men with beards have pride in them, they consider it a symbol of manhood. And with the increased awareness of 'No Shave November', growing a beard has become a bit of a cult. But what if I tell you that your beard hair is actually pubic hair? Yes, it's true. So now as you stare at your beard in the mirror, take a look at this expert review which explains it all.

The term puberty originates from 'pubertatum' which is the Latin word for 'age of maturity' and manhood, as well as 'pubertis' which means 'adult, full-grown, manly'. The Middle English term for pubic hair was 'neþir berd.'
This means that any hair that grows in a place it didn't before puberty is pubic.

When interviewed by Huffington Post, Dr. Bobby Buka, founder of Greenwich Village Dermatology and section chief at the Mount Sinai School of Medicine said, "The concentration of sebaceous glands is high in several areas like the face, groin and armpits. So the hair characteristics in those areas are very similar, in terms of thickness of shaft and quality of hair."

Apparently, most of our body hair has thinned out over time but our groin hair has stayed thick. As a result, it can release pheromones and attract mates, and that's exactly what the beard does too. Sebaceous glands are higher on your face than your scalp, which increases sebum, a carrier of pheromones. And since your beard is richer in sebum, resulting in higher pheromones, it has a distinct smell.

"Your signature smell comes more from beard hair than from scalp hair. The base of a hair follicle is much bigger on your face, which is why it looks thicker on your face than your scalp hair. But it’s considered the same type of process, slightly different growth rates but same morphology otherwise," Buka added.



__________________________________




Nothing Protects Black Women From Dying in Pregnancy and Childbirth

Dec 7, 2017

Not education. Not income. Not even being an expert on racial disparities in health care.

In recent years, as high rates of maternal mortality in the U.S. have alarmed researchers, one statistic has been especially concerning. According to the CDC, black mothers in the U.S. die at three to four times the rate of white mothers, one of the widest of all racial disparities in women’s health. Put another way, a black woman is 22 percent more likely to die from heart disease than a white woman, 71 percent more likely to perish from cervical cancer, but 243 percent more likely to die from pregnancy- or childbirth-related causes. In a national study of five medical complications that are common causes of maternal death and injury, black women were two to three times more likely to die than white women who had the same condition.

https://www.propublica.org/article/nothing-protects-black-women-from-dying-in-pregnancy-and-childbirth



__________________________________



Earlier Onset and Racial Differences of Puberty in Boys

Sep 18, 2001

https://www.jwatch.org/jw200109180000005/2001/09/18/earlier-onset-and-racial-differences-puberty

__________________________________

Ethnic Differences in the Presence of Secondary Sex Characteristics and Menarche Among US Girls: The Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1988–1994

October 2002

https://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/110/4/752?download=true

__________________________________

Girls’ Sleep Trajectories Across the Pubertal Transition: Emerging Racial/Ethnic Differences

2017

http://www.sfsustarlab.com/uploads/6/0/4/2/60428137/hoyt_et_al_2018_journal_of_adolescent_health_article.pdf

 

__________________________________

Race disparities in pubertal timing: Implications for cardiovascular disease risk among African American women

2017

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6097246/

__________________________________

Prevalence and correlates of pubic hair grooming among low-income Hispanic, Black, and White women

2013

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3643298/


__________________________________

What Black Women Don't Want: 'Is Your Pubic Hair An Afro Too?'

December 2013

https://www.telegraph.co.uk/women/womens-life/10516452/What-black-women-dont-want-Is-your-pubic-hair-an-Afro-too.html

 

__________________________________

 Head lice infestations in different ethnic groups

December 21, 2001

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1046/j.1365-4362.2001.00977.x


__________________________________

What are the racial predilections of pediculosis and pthiriasis (lice infestation)?

Aug 16, 2019

https://www.medscape.com/answers/225013-85258/what-are-the-racial-predilections-of-pediculosis-and-pthiriasis-lice-infestation


Louse infestation affects all races and ethnic groups. However, in North America, the reported incidence of head louse infestation is lower in African Americans than in any other racial group, probably in part because of the use of pomades and in part because the claw size of the head louse is more adapted to the round shape of the hair shaft found in white persons and Asian persons.  However, blacks may experience P pubis scalp infestation.


__________________________________


Men, African-Americans at highest risk for body lice among homeless in San Francisco

October 22, 2014

https://www.healio.com/news/infectious-disease/20141022/men-african-americans-at-highest-risk-for-body-lice-among-homeless-in-san-francisco


__________________________________

Network centrality and seasonality interact to predict lice load in a social primate

February 26, 2016

https://www.nature.com/articles/srep22095

 

__________________________________

Black Death May Have Spread Via Human Fleas & Lice, Not Rats

JAN 19, 2018

https://www.contagionlive.com/news/black-death-may-have-spread-via-human-fleas-and-lice-not-rats


Plague arrived in Europe by sea via Genoese trading ships that docked at the Sicilian port of Messina after traveling through the Black Sea. Since then, the question of how it spread during the Black Death (1346-1353) and throughout the Second Pandemic (13th-19th CE) has remained a controversial subject.

Now, findings from a modeling study suggest that human fleas and body lice—not rodents—may have been the cause of Europe’s Second Pandemic.

Caused by Yersinia pestis, plague is a disease that affects humans and other mammals, and it can be spread throughout human populations via several pathways. One of the most commonly recognized routes of transmission to humans is through the bites of rodent fleas that are carrying the bacterium, or via infected animals, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC); this is commonly referred to as bubonic plague. Plague can also spread from human-to-human via infectious droplets from a pneumonic infection, according to study authors; when this happens, it’s considered pneumonic plague.

“Modern plague transmission is well-documented for the Third Pandemic (beginning in the mid-19th CE),” the authors write. “However, there is controversy over how plague spread during the Black Death, and throughout the Second Pandemic, due to the relatively high mortality and rapid geographic spread in Europe as compared to India.”


__________________________________

 

 Why the sex pilus is so dangerous - horizontal gene transfer

Jul 18, 2019

 

 Horizontal gene transfer allows bacteria to swap genes, these speeds up the acquisition of new traits like antibiotic resistance. There are 3 main mechanisms: transduction, transformation and conjugation. But where are human pathogens picking up these genes? In our bodies? In rivers and oceans? Research funded by the NERC might help us find out.

 

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GzCLp1KBf4Q

_____________________________________

_____________________________________

__________________________________

__________________________________

__________________________________


Section 13: Parasites

__________________________________

__________________________________

__________________________________

_____________________________________

_____________________________________

 

 

Arms races between social parasites and their hosts: geographic patterns of manipulation and resistance

January 01, 2003

https://academic.oup.com/beheco/article/14/1/80/209842


__________________________________


Population mixing promotes arms race host–parasite coevolution

Jan 2015

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4262181/

 

__________________________________


Parasites represent a major selective force for interleukin genes and shape the genetic predisposition to autoimmune conditions

June 8, 2009

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2715056/

 

__________________________________


History of Human Parasitology

2002

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC126866/

 

__________________________________

New evidence of genetic 'arms race' against malaria

June 13, 2011

https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/06/110609122914.htm

 

__________________________________


Platelets kill circulating parasites of all major Plasmodium species in human malaria

September 20, 2018

https://ashpublications.org/blood/article/132/12/1332/39622/Platelets-kill-circulating-parasites-of-all-major


__________________________________

Drug resistance in vectorborne parasites: multiple actors and scenarios for an evolutionary arms race

January 01, 2014

https://academic.oup.com/femsre/article/38/1/41/510439


__________________________________

The origin and dispersion of human parasitic diseases in the Old World (Africa, Europe and Madagascar)

Jan 2003

https://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0074-02762003000900004

 

__________________________________


Parasite Rex: Inside the Bizarre World of Nature’s Most Dangerous Creatures

https://carlzimmer.com/books/parasite-rex/


__________________________________

Plant-Parasite Coevolution: Bridging the Gap between Genetics and Ecology

September 2011

https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev-phyto-072910-095301?journalCode=phyto

Abstract

We review current ideas about coevolution of plants and parasites, particularly processes that generate genetic diversity. Frequencies of host resistance and parasite virulence alleles that interact in gene-for-gene (GFG) relationships coevolve in the familiar boom-and-bust cycle, in which resistance is selected when virulence is rare, and virulence is selected when resistance is common. The cycle can result in stable polymorphism when diverse ecological and epidemiological factors cause negative direct frequency-dependent selection (ndFDS) on host resistance, parasite virulence, or both, such that the benefit of a trait to fitness declines as its frequency increases. Polymorphism can also be stabilized by overdominance, when heterozygous hosts have greater resistance than homozygotes to diverse pathogens. Genetic diversity can also persist in the form of statistical polymorphism, sustained by random processes acting on gene frequencies and population size. Stable polymorphism allows alleles to be long-lived and genetic variation to be detectable in natural populations. In agriculture, many of the factors promoting stability in host-parasite interactions have been lost, leading to arms races of host defenses and parasite effectors.


__________________________________

Land Use Change Increases Wildlife Parasite Diversity in Anamalai Hills, Western Ghats, India

August 19, 2019

https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-019-48325-8

__________________________________

 

 Are Bed Bugs Racist?

July 30, 2019

https://newsradiowrva.radio.com/blogs/jeff-katz/are-bed-bugs-racist

Since saying that Baltimore is rat-infested is apparently racist, is it also racist to say they have a bed bug problem? Because they do.

Pest control company Orkin named Baltimore the No. 1 bed bug-infested city in the United States in January. The top 10 were:

    1. Baltimore
    2. Washington, D.C.
    3. Chicago
    4. Los Angeles (+2)
    5. Columbus, Ohio
    6. Cincinnati (+2)
    7. Detroit
    8. New York (-4)
    9. San Francisco-Oakland-San Jose
    10. Dallas-Fort Worth (+5)

__________________________________

Bed Bugs: Prevalence in Low-Income Communities, Resident’s Reactions, and Implementation of a Low-Cost Inspection Protocol

April 05, 2016

https://academic.oup.com/jme/article/53/3/639/2222435


__________________________________



The race to save sea turtles from deadly herpes tumors

December 7, 2017

https://oceana.org/blog/race-save-sea-turtles-deadly-herpes-tumors

__________________________________

Meet the hominin species that gave us genital herpes

October 1, 2017

https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2017/10/171001225317.htm

Summary:

    New research uses innovative data modeling to predict which species acted as an intermediary between our ancestors and those of chimpanzees to carry HSV2 -- the genital herpes virus -- across the species barrier.

Two herpes simplex viruses infect primates from unknown evolutionary depths. In modern humans these viruses manifest as cold sores (HSV1) and genital herpes (HSV2).

Unlike HSV1, however, the earliest proto-humans did not take HSV2 with them when our ancient lineage split from chimpanzee precursors around 7 million years ago. Humanity dodged the genital herpes bullet -- almost.

Somewhere between 3 and 1.4 million years ago, HSV2 jumped the species barrier from African apes back into human ancestors -- probably through an intermediate hominin species unrelated to humans. Hominin is the zoological 'tribe' to which our species belongs.

Now, a team of scientists from Cambridge and Oxford Brookes universities believe they may have identified the culprit: Parathropus boisei, a heavyset bipedal hominin with a smallish brain and dish-like face.

In a study published today in the journal Virus Evolution, they suggest that P. boisei most likely contracted HSV2 through scavenging ancestral chimp meat where savannah met forest -- the infection seeping in via bites or open sores.

Hominins with HSV1 may have been initially protected from HSV2, which also occupied the mouth. That is until HSV2 "adapted to a different mucosal niche" say the scientists. A niche located in the genitals.

Close contact between P. boisei and our ancestor Homo erectus would have been fairly common around sources of water, such as Kenya's Lake Turkana. This provided the opportunity for HSV2 to boomerang into our bloodline.

The appearance of Homo erectus around 2 million years ago was accompanied by evidence of hunting and butchery. Once again, consuming "infected material" would have transmitted the virus -- only this time it was P. boisei being devoured.

"Herpes infect everything from humans to coral, with each species having its own specific set of viruses," said senior author Dr Charlotte Houldcroft, a virologist from Cambridge's Department of Archaeology.

"For these viruses to jump species barriers they need a lucky genetic mutation combined with significant fluid exchange. In the case of early hominins, this means through consumption or intercourse -- or possibly both."

"By modelling the available data, from fossil records to viral genetics, we believe that Parathropus boisei was the species in the right place at the right time to both contract HSV2 from ancestral chimpanzees, and transmit it to our earliest ancestors, probably Homo erectus."

When researchers from University of California, San Diego, published findings suggesting HSV2 had jumped between hominin species, Houldcroft became curious.

While discussing genital herpes over dinner at Kings College, Cambridge, with fellow academic Dr Krishna Kumar, an idea formed. Kumar, an engineer who uses Bayesian network modelling to predict city-scale infrastructure requirements, suggested applying his techniques to the question of ancient HSV2.

Houldcroft and her collaborator Dr Simon Underdown, a human evolution researcher from Oxford Brookes, collated data ranging from fossil finds to herpes DNA and ancient African climates. Using Kumar's model, the team generated HSV2 transmission probabilities for the mosaic of hominin species that roamed Africa during "deep time."

"Climate fluctuations over millennia caused forests and lakes to expand and contract," said Underdown. "Layering climate data with fossil locations helped us determine the species most likely to come into contact with ancestral chimpanzees in the forests, as well as other hominins at water sources."

Some promising leads turned out to be dead ends. Australopithecus afarensis had the highest probability of proximity to ancestral chimps, but geography also ruled it out of transmitting to human ancestors.

Ultimately, the researchers discovered the key player in all the scenarios with higher probabilities to be Parathropus boisei. A genetic fit virally who was found in the right places to be the herpes intermediary, with Homo erectus -- and eventually us -- the unfortunate recipients.

"Once HSV2 gains entry to a species it stays, easily transferred from mother to baby, as well as through blood, saliva and sex," said Houldcroft.

"HSV2 is ideally suited to low density populations. The genital herpes virus would have crept across Africa the way it creeps down nerve endings in our sex organs -- slowly but surely."

The team believe their methodology can be used to unravel the transmission mysteries of other ancient diseases -- such as human pubic lice, also introduced via an intermediate hominin from ancestral gorillas over 3 million years ago.



__________________________________

Genital herpes common in African American men

Marh 28, 2006

There have also been a number of recent developments in the understanding of genital herpes in the US. Firstly, studies have shown that the prevalence of genital herpes is two times greater in African Americans than among whites with as many as 50% of African Americans infected...

https://www.aidsmap.com/news/mar-2006/genital-herpes-common-african-american-men

__________________________________

The story behind alarming herpes numbers for black women

February 20, 2013

https://www.mercurynews.com/2013/02/20/the-story-behind-alarming-herpes-numbers-for-black-women/

The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s announcement that nearly half of African-American women are infected with herpes has prompted reactions from panic and shock to outrage and disbelief. The study finds that women and blacks were most likely to be infected. The prevalence of herpes simplex virus 2 (HSV-2) was nearly twice as high among women (20.9 percent) than men (11.5 percent), and was more than three times higher among blacks (39.2 percent) than whites (12.3 percent). The most affected group was black women, with a prevalence rate of 48 percent.


__________________________________

Wrap It Up! STD Rates For African-Americans Are Four Times Higher Than White People In The US

2019

https://www.bet.com/style/living/2019/11/26/std-rates-for-african-americans-are-higher-than-white-people.html


__________________________________

African-American Syphilis Rates Four Times Higher Than Whites According to New CDC Study

November 25, 2019

https://www.charlestonchronicle.net/2019/11/25/african-american-syphilis-rates-four-times-higher-than-whites-according-to-new-cdc-study/


The National Association of County and City Health Officials (NACCHO), representing the nation’s nearly 3,000 local governmental health departments, is deeply concerned about the racial disparities demonstrated by the newly released statistics on sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). The 2018 STD Surveillance Report highlights that rates of syphilis, chlamydia, and gonorrhea have surged for the fifth year. The disparity in STD infection rates for African-Americans compared to other populations remains high.

According to the study:

    Primary and Secondary Syphilis – In 2018, the disparity between Primary & Secondary syphilis rates for blacks and whites was 4.7 times greater for black females compared to white females and 4.8 times greater for black males compared to white males.
    Gonorrhea – In 2018, gonorrhea rates are significant and concerning in all populations, but there is a clear disparity between blacks and whites with black males rate 8.5 times that of white males and black females rate at 6.9 times that of white females.
    Chlamydia – The rate of reported chlamydia cases among black females was five times the rate among white females (1,411.1 and 281.7 cases per 100,000 population, respectively). The rate of reported chlamydia cases among black males was 6.8 times the rate among white males (952.3 and 140.4 cases per 100,000 population, respectively).


__________________________________

STDs are on rise, especially among black women in St. Louis

October 10, 2019

https://metrostl.com/2019/10/10/stds-are-on-rise-especially-among-black-women-in-st-louis/


ST. LOUIS – Sexually transmitted diseases in the U.S. have continued to rise for the fifth consecutive year.

That’s according to the Sexually Transmitted Diseases Surveillance Report published Tuesday by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

The report sited rises in chlamydia, gonorrhea and syphilis.

In the report, Missouri ranked seventh in rates of gonorrhea.

The state ranked 12th in cases of chlamydia and 11th in primary and secondary syphilis.   

Officials see the CDC report as alarming. However, it came has no surprise to St. Louisan James E. Green...

__________________________________

Report: Blacks Hit by STDs More Than Whites

11/17/11

https://www.theroot.com/report-blacks-hit-by-stds-more-than-whites-1790866932

__________________________________

Sexually-Transmitted Infections Reach Peak Levels; Poor Most At Risk

April 23, 2109

https://www.npr.org/local/309/2019/04/23/716545592/sexually-transmitted-infections-reach-peak-levels-poor-most-at-risk


__________________________________

California STD Rates Continue to Rise, with Blacks and Latinos Often Hardest Hit

Oct 30, 2017

https://www.calhealthreport.org/2017/10/30/california-std-rates-continue-rise-blacks-latinos-often-hardest-hit/

__________________________________

U.S. herpes rates remain high - CDC

March 9, 2010

https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSN09235286


*1 in 6 Americans aged 14 to 49 infected with herpes

*Highest rates found among blacks, women


WASHINGTON, March 9 (Reuters) - About 16 percent of Americans between the ages of 14 and 49 are infected with genital herpes, making it one of the most common sexually transmitted diseases, U.S. health officials said on Tuesday.

Black women had the highest rate of infection at 48 percent and women were nearly twice likely as men to be infected, according to an analysis by the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.


__________________________________

 

Racial Differences in Responses to Therapy With Interferonin Chronic Hepatitis C

1999

https://aasldpubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/hep.510300319

 

__________________________________

Prevalence of HSV-1 during 2015–2016 was highest among Mexican-American persons and lowest among non-Hispanic white persons.

February 2018

https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/products/databriefs/db304.htm#hsv1_prevalence_by_race_comparision

Key findings

Data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey

    During 2015–2016, prevalence of herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) was 47.8%, and prevalence of herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2) was 11.9%.
    Prevalence of both HSV-1 and HSV-2 increased with age.
    Prevalence of both HSV-1 and HSV-2 was higher among females than males.
    Prevalence of HSV-1 was highest among Mexican-American persons and lowest among non-Hispanic white persons. HSV-2 prevalence was highest among Hispanic black persons and lowest among non-Hispanic Asian persons.
    Prevalence of both HSV-1 and HSV-2 decreased from 1999–2000 to 2015–2016 (from 59.4% to 48.1%, and from 18.0% to 12.1%, respectively).



__________________________________


Prevalence of herpes simplex virus type 2 in the U.S. from 1999 to 2016, by ethnicity

 Sep 11, 2018

https://www.statista.com/statistics/815257/genital-herpes-prevalence-us-by-ethnicity/

 

__________________________________


Almost Everyone Has Herpes, But How Worried Should We Be?

Nov 5, 2015

https://rewirenewsgroup.com/article/2015/11/05/almost-everyone-herpes-worried/


A new report by the World Health Organization estimates that two out of three adults under the age of 50 had herpes simplex virus 1 in 2012. That’s 3.7 billion people worldwide who are infected. But that doesn't mean it's time to panic.


__________________________________



Risk factors for herpes simplex virus transmission to pregnant women: A couples study

2005

https://www.ajog.org/article/S0002-9378(05)01091-4/pdf


__________________________________


Infant Deaths Due To Herpes Simplex Virus, Congenital Syphilis, and HIV in New York City

April 2016

https://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/137/4/e20152387

Abstract

BACKGROUND: Neonatal infection with herpes simplex virus (HSV) is not a nationally reportable disease; there have been few population-based measures of HSV-related infant mortality. We describe infant death rates due to neonatal HSV as compared with congenital syphilis (CS) and HIV, 2 reportable, perinatally transmitted diseases, in New York City from 1981 to 2013.

METHODS: We identified neonatal HSV-, CS-, and HIV-related deaths using International Classification of Diseases (ICD) codes listed on certificates of death or stillbirth issued in New York City. Deaths were classified as HSV-related if certificates listed (1) any HSV ICD-9/ICD-10 codes for deaths ≤42 days of age, (2) any HSV ICD-9/ICD-10 codes and an ICD code for perinatal infection for deaths at 43 to 365 days of age, or (3) an ICD-10 code for congenital HSV. CS- and HIV-related deaths were those listing any ICD code for syphilis or HIV.

RESULTS: There were 34 deaths due to neonatal HSV (0.82 deaths per 100 000 live births), 38 from CS (0.92 per 100 000), and 262 from HIV (6.33 per 100 000). There were no CS-related deaths after 1996, and only 1 HIV-related infant death after 2004. The neonatal HSV-related death rate during the most recent decade (2004–2013) was significantly higher than in previous years.

CONCLUSIONS: The increasing neonatal HSV-related death rate may reflect increases in neonatal herpes incidence; an increasing number of pregnant women have never had HSV type 1 and are therefore at risk of acquiring infection during pregnancy and transmitting to their infant.


__________________________________


Determinants of Ethnic Differences in Cytomegalovirus, Epstein-Barr Virus, and Herpes Simplex Virus Type 1 Seroprevalence in Childhood

March 2016

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0022347615013499


__________________________________


Black Children at Lower Risk of Shingles after Chickenpox Vaccine Genetic Explanation Is Most Likely, Researchers Think


Philadelphia, Pa. (March 11, 2010) – Black children are less likely than white or Asian children to develop shingles (herpes zoster) after receiving the varicella vaccine to prevent chickenpox, reports a study in the March issue of The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal (ThePediatricInfectiousDiseaseJournal). The journal is published by Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, a part of Wolters Kluwer Health, a leading provider of information and business intelligence for students, professionals, and institutions in medicine, nursing, allied health, and pharmacy.  The results are consistent with previous studies showing lower rates of herpes zoster in black versus white adults. "It is possible that genetic variation may explain some portion of varicella-zoster virus reactivation," according to the new study, led by Dr. Hung Fu Tseng of Kaiser Permanente, Pasadena, Calif. White and Asian Children at Higher Risk of Herpes Zoster Using records from a large Kaiser Permanente health plan, Dr. Tseng and colleagues identified 122 children, aged 12 years or younger, who developed herpes zoster after receiving chickenpox (varicella) vaccine. Sometimes called shingles, herpes zoster is a painful, blistering rash that occurs when the varicella zoster virus (VZV), which causes chickenpox, becomes reactivated in the body. Herpes zoster is much more common in adults than children, particularly children who have received the varicella vaccine. However, like natural VZV, the virus used in the varicella vaccine can become reactivated, causing shingles to occur later. The 122 children with herpes zoster were matched for race, age, and sex to a group of vaccinated children who did not develop herpes zoster. Possible risk factors were analyzed...


https://journals.lww.com/pidj/Documents/Zoster%20Risk%20after%20Varicella%20Vax%20MAR%20final%2003%2011.pdf


__________________________________

Racial Differences in the Occurrence of Herpes Zoster

1995

https://www.jstor.org/stable/30134847?seq=1

 

__________________________________

Herpes virus infects billions of people worldwide. Why isn't there a vaccine yet?

May 4, 2020

A vaccine to prevent herpes infections could also have an impact on slowing the spread of HIV, according to a WHO report.

https://www.nbcnews.com/health/sexual-health/herpes-virus-infects-billions-people-worldwide-why-isn-t-there-n1199401


__________________________________

Herpes's Achilles heel

December 12, 2019

https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2019/12/191212104636.htm


In a first, scientists use gene-editing to disrupt both latent and active herpes virus in human cells

Summary:
    Scientists have used the gene-editing tool CRISPR-Cas9 to disrupt both latent reservoirs of the herpes simplex virus and actively replicating virus in human fibroblast cells. Experiments pinpoint weak spot that can make the virus susceptible to gene editing.


The herpes simplex virus, commonly known as the cold sore virus, is a devious microbe.

It enters the body through regions lined with mucous membranes -- mouth, nose and genitals -- but quickly establishes lifelong viral hideouts inside nerve cells. After initial infection, the virus lurks dormant only to be reawakened periodically to cause outbreaks marked by the eruption of cold sores or blisters. In a handful of people, the consequences of viral reawaking can be devastating, including blindness and brain inflammation.

Antiviral medications can prevent recurrent outbreaks, but they are not always effective, so for decades, researchers have sought a solution that would quiet the virus for good.

Now, using human fibroblast cells infected with herpes simplex virus (HSV), researchers at Harvard Medical School have successfully used CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing to disrupt not only actively replicating virus but also the far-harder to reach dormant pools of the virus, demonstrating a possible strategy for achieving permanent viral control.



__________________________________

The function of herpes simplex virus genes: A primer for genetic engineering of novel vectors

1996

https://www.nap.edu/read/5708/chapter/6


ABSTRACT

Herpes simplex virus vectors are being developed for delivery and expression of human genes to the central nervous system, selective destruction of cancer cells, and as carriers for genes encoding antigens that induce protective immunity against infectious agents. Vectors constructed to meet these objectives must differ from wild-type virus with respect to host range, reactivation from latency, and expression of viral genes. The vectors currently being developed are (i) helper free amplicons, (ii) replication defective viruses, and (iii) genetically engineered replication competent viruses with restricted host range. Whereas the former two types of vectors require stable, continuous cell lines expressing viral genes for their replication, the replication competent viruses will replicate on approved primary human cell strains.


__________________________________


The application of genetically engineered herpes simplex viruses to the treatment of experimental brain tumors.

1996

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC38054/

 

__________________________________

Modified Herpes Virus Increases Survival In Advanced Melanoma Patients

June 17, 2015

https://melanomanewstoday.com/2015/06/17/modified-herpes-virus-increases-survival-advanced-melanoma-patients/


__________________________________


Injecting a Modified Herpes Virus Into the Melanoma Battle

February 25, 2020

https://www.uhhospitals.org/for-clinicians/articles-and-news/articles/2020/02/injecting-a-modified-herpes-virus-into-the-melanoma-battle



FDA-approved immunotherapy treatment employed at UH for advanced, unresectable cancers

Melanoma patients with advanced, unresectable disease have access to a unique immunotherapy at UH Cleveland Medical Center that can enlist their immune system to fight their cancer.

Talimogene laherparepvec (known as TVEC) is an FDA-approved treatment for patients with stage 3B to 4C melanoma that is not appropriate for surgical management. This includes melanoma that spreads subcutaneously with satellite cancer cell deposits, or palpable tumors that can be injected with the therapy even in the presence of other sites of metastatic disease. The treatment involves injection of a genetically modified herpes simplex virus 1 that works as an oncolytic agent targeting cancer cells, causing them to burst and expose the antigens that prime the body’s T-cell response.


__________________________________

HSV-1/HSV-2 Infection-Related Cancers in Bantu Populations Driving HIV-1 Prevalence in Africa: Tracking the Origin of AIDS at the Onset of the 20th Century

2016

https://www.karger.com/article/FullText/450939


__________________________________


HIV and STI Risk for Young Blacks in High Prevalence Areas: Implications for Health Equity in Communities Hosting Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs)

2014

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5568684/


__________________________________

HIV/STI Risk Factors Among African-American Students Attending Predominantly White Universities

2010

https://digitalscholarship.unlv.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1038&context=jhdrp



__________________________________


Racial/Ethnic Differences in Patterns of Sexual Risk Behavior and Rates of Sexually Transmitted Infections Among Female Young Adults

2013

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3698802/


__________________________________

Prevalence of STDs Is High For Black Young Adults Regardless of Risk Behavior

June 6, 2007

https://www.guttmacher.org/journals/psrh/2007/prevalence-stds-high-black-young-adults-regardless-risk-behavior

Even if black young adults participate only in low-risk behaviors, their prevalence of STDs, including HIV, is higher than the national average for their age-group, according to analyses based on Wave 3 of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Add Health).1 In contrast, STD prevalence among white young adults exceeds the average of 6% only if they engage in certain high-risk behaviors. And in general, among young adults who fit a given behavioral risk profile, blacks are more likely than whites to have an STD.

__________________________________

2000 STD Prevention Conference - African Americans Disproportionately Affected by STDs

2000

https://www.cdc.gov/stdconference/2000/media/afamericans2000.htm


    Gonorrhea Rates are 30 Times Higher in African Americans than in Whites

    African-American Women are at High Risk for Genital Herpes

    Studies Find Media Campaigns Successfully Educate Young African Americans about STDs



__________________________________



STDs in Racial and Ethnic Minorities

2017

https://www.cdc.gov/std/stats17/minorities.htm



Chlamydia

During 2013–2017, rates of reported chlamydia cases increased among all racial and Hispanic ethnicity groups. Specifically, rates increased 3.7% among American Indians/Alaska Natives (AI/AN), 29.6% among Asians, 6.1% among Blacks, 19.4% among Native Hawaiians/Other Pacific Islanders (NHOPI), 20.2% among Whites, 59.9% among Multirace, and 10.5% among Hispanics (Figure 8).

Blacks — In 2017, the overall rate of reported chlamydia cases among Blacks in the United States was 1,175.8 cases per 100,000 population (Table 11B). The rate of reported chlamydia cases among Black women was 5.0 times the rate among White women (1,419.9 and 283.3 cases per 100,000 females, respectively) (Figure S and Table 11B). The rate of reported chlamydia cases among Black men was 6.6 times the rate among White men (907.3 and 137.1 cases per 100,000 males, respectively). Rates of reported cases of chlamydia were highest for Blacks aged 15–19 and 20–24 years in 2017 (Table 11B). The rate of reported chlamydia cases among Black women aged 15–19 years (6,771.6 cases per 100,000 females) was 4.5 times the rate among White women in the same age group (1,518.5 cases per 100,000 females). The rate of reported chlamydia cases among Black women aged 20–24 years was 3.6 times the rate among White women in the same age group (6,971.7 and 1,936.0 cases per 100,000 females, respectively) (Table 11B). Among females aged 15–24 years, the population targeted for screening, rates were highest among Blacks in all US regions (Figure T).

Similar racial disparities in reported chlamydia rates exist among men. Among men aged 15–19 years, the rate of reported chlamydia cases among Blacks was 8.9 times the rate among Whites (2,589.3 and 291.5 cases per 100,000 males, respectively) (Table 11B). The rate of reported chlamydia cases among Black men aged 20–24 years was 5.0 times the rate among White men of the same age group (3,627.4 and 726.8 cases per 100,000 males, respectively).

American Indians/Alaska Natives — In 2017, the rate of reported chlamydia cases among AI/AN was 781.2 cases per 100,000 population (Table 11B). Overall, the rate of reported chlamydia cases among AI/AN in the United States as 3.7 times the rate among Whites.

Native Hawaiians/Other Pacific Islanders — In 2017, the rate of reported chlamydia cases among NHOPI was 715.4 cases per 100,000 population (Table 11B). The overall rate of reported chlamydia cases among NHOPI was 3.4 times the rate among Whites and 5.5 times the rate among Asians.

Hispanics — In 2017, the rate of reported chlamydia cases among Hispanics was 404.1 cases per 100,000 population, which was 1.9 times the rate among Whites (Table 11B).

Asians — In 2017, the rate of reported chlamydia cases among Asians was 129.6 cases per 100,000 population (Table 11B). The overall rate of reported chlamydia cases among Whites was 1.6 times the rate among Asians.


Gonorrhea

During 2013–2017, rates of reported gonorrhea cases increased 176.6% among Multirace persons (27.8 to 76.9 cases per 100,000 population), 122.4% among Asians (15.6 to 34.7 cases per 100,000 population), 109.1% among NHOPI (89.8 to 187.8 cases per 100,000 population), 100.6% among Whites (33.1 to 66.4 cases per 100,00 population), 95.3% among AI/AN (154.6 to 301.9 cases per 100,000 population), 77.4% among Hispanics (64.1 to 113.7 cases per 100,000 population), and 36.2% among Blacks (402.3 to 548.1 cases per 100,000 population) (Figure 22).


Blacks — In 2017, the overall rate of reported gonorrhea cases among Blacks in the United States was 548.1 cases per 100,000 population (Table 22B). The rate of reported gonorrhea cases among Blacks in 2017 was 8.3 times the rate among Whites (66.4 cases per 100,000 population) (Table 22B). In 2017, this disparity was similar for Black men (8.9 times the rate among White men) and Black women (7.6 times the rate among White women) (Figure U, Table 22B). As in previous years, the disparity in gonorrhea rates for Blacks in 2017 was larger in the Midwest and Northeast than in the South and West (Figure V).

Considering all race, Hispanic ethnicity, and age categories, rates of reported gonorrhea cases were highest for Blacks aged 20–24, 15–19, and 25–29 years in 2017 (Table 22B). The rate of reported gonorrhea cases among Black women aged 20–24 years (2,066.8 cases per 100,000 females) was 7.4 times the rate among White women in the same age group (280.0 cases per 100,000 females). The rate of reported gonorrhea cases among Black women aged 15–19 years (1,843.8 cases per 100,000 females) was 9.3 times the rate among White women in the same age group (197.5 cases per 100,000 females). Among Black men aged 20–24 years, the rate of reported gonorrhea cases (2,154.8 cases per 100,000 males) was 9.3 times the rate among White men in the same age group (231.3 cases per 100,000 males). The rate of reported gonorrhea cases among Black men aged 25–29 years (1,863.1 cases per 100,000 males) was 7.3 times the rate among White men in the same age group (253.5 cases per 100,000 males).

American Indians/Alaska Natives — In 2017, the rate of reported gonorrhea cases among AI/AN (301.9 cases per 100,000 population) was 4.5 times the rate among Whites (Table 22B). The disparity between gonorrhea rates for AI/AN and Whites was larger for AI/AN women (6.2 times the rate among White women) than for AI/AN men (3.2 times the rate among White men) (Figure U, Table 22B). The disparity in gonorrhea rates for AI/AN in 2017 was larger in the Midwest than in the West, Northeast, and South (Figure V).

Native Hawaiians/Other Pacific Islanders — In 2017, the rate of reported gonorrhea cases among NHOPI (187.8 cases per 100,000 population) was 2.8 times the rate among Whites (Table 22B). This disparity was similar for NHOPI women (3.0 times the rate among White women) and NHOPI men (2.7 times the rate among White men) (Figure U, Table 22B). The disparity in gonorrhea rates for NHOPI in 2017 was lower in the West than in the Midwest, Northeast, or South (Figure V).

Hispanics — In 2017, the rate of reported gonorrhea cases among Hispanics was 113.7 cases per 100,000 population, which was 1.7 times the rate among Whites (Table 22B). This disparity was similar for Hispanic women (1.5 times the rate among White women) and Hispanic men (1.9 times the rate among White men) (Figure U, Table 22B). The disparity in gonorrhea rates for Hispanics in 2017 was higher in the Northeast than in the Midwest, South, or West (Figure V).

Asians — In 2017, the rate of reported gonorrhea cases among Asians (34.7 cases per 100,000 population) was 0.5 times the rate among Whites (Table 22B). This difference was larger for Asian women than for Asian men (Figure U, Table 22B). In 2017, gonorrhea rates among Asians were lower than rates among Whites in all four regions of the United States (Figure V).


Primary and Secondary Syphilis


During 2013–2017, rates of reported P&S syphilis cases increased 192.6% among those who identified as Multirace (2.7 to 7.9 cases per 100,000 population), 141.3% among AI/AN (4.6 to 11.1 cases per 100,000 population), 91.3% among Asians (2.3 to 4.4 cases per 100,000 population), 84.4% among Hispanics (6.4 to 11.8 cases per 100,000 population), 80.0% among Whites (3.0 to 5.4 cases per 100,000 population), 58.0% among NHOPI (8.8 to 13.9 cases per 100,000 population), and 44.0% among Blacks (16.8 to 24.2 cases per 100,000 population) (Figure 45). Across race and Hispanic ethnicity groups, MSM accounted for the highest proportion of P&S syphilis cases (Figure W).

Blacks — In 2017, 33.7% of reported P&S syphilis cases with known race and Hispanic ethnicity (excluding cases with missing information on race and Hispanic ethnicity, and cases whose reported race was ‘Other’ and Hispanic ethnicity was ‘No’ or ‘Unknown’) occurred among Blacks (Table 35A). The rate of reported P&S syphilis cases among Blacks in 2017 (24.2 cases per 100,000 population) was 4.5 times the rate among Whites (5.4 cases per 100,000 population) (Table 35B). The disparity was greater for Black women (5.2 times the rate among White women) than for Black men (4.5 times the rate among White men) (Figure X, Table 35B). Similar disparities were seen in all regions of the United States (Figure Y).

Considering all race, Hispanic ethnicity, sex, and age categories, rates of reported P&S syphilis cases were highest among Black men aged 25–29 years in 2017 (Table 35B). The rate of reported P&S syphilis cases among Black men aged 25–29 years (142.4 cases per 100,000 males) was 5.8 times the rate among White men in the same age group (24.7 cases per 100,000 males).

Native Hawaiians/Other Pacific Islanders — In 2017, the rate of reported P&S syphilis cases among NHOPI was 13.9 cases per 100,000 population, which was 2.6 times the rate among Whites (Table 35B). This disparity was similar for NHOPI women (2.5 times the rate among White women) and NHOPI men (2.6 times the rate among White men).

Hispanics — In 2017, the rate of reported P&S syphilis cases among Hispanics (11.8 cases per 100,000 population) was 2.2 times the rate among Whites (Table 35B). This disparity was similar for Hispanic men (2.2 times the rate  among White men) and Hispanic women (1.8 times the rate among White women).

American Indians/Alaska Natives — In 2017, the rate of reported P&S syphilis cases among AI/AN (11.1 cases per 100,000 population) was 2.1 times the rate among Whites (Table 35B). This disparity was greater for AI/AN women (4.6 times the rate among White women) than for AI/AN men (1.7 times the rate among White men).

Asians — In 2017, the rate of reported P&S syphilis cases among Asians was 4.4 cases per 100,000 population, which was 0.8 times the rate among Whites (Table 35B). This difference was larger for Asian women (0.3 times the rate among White women) than for Asian men (0.9 times the rate among White men).




__________________________________

Race/ethnic and socioeconomic differences in stress and immunefunction in The National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health

2014

https://www.sesp.northwestern.edu/docs/publications/1398029715787e11ea7652.pdf

 

__________________________________

 

Black children in the US more likely to die from surgery complications

October 3, 2020

https://www.newscientist.com/article/2256106-black-children-in-the-us-more-likely-to-die-from-surgery-complications/

 

__________________________________

 

 The Downstream Effects of Bail and Pretrial Detention on Racial Disparities in Incarceration

2018

https://scholarlycommons.law.northwestern.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=7641&context=jclc

 

_____________________________________

_____________________________________

__________________________________

__________________________________

__________________________________


Section 14: Blood & Genetics

__________________________________

__________________________________

__________________________________

_____________________________________

_____________________________________

 Blood pressure in a national sample of U.S. adults: percentile distribution by age, sex and race

1973

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/4776016/

 

__________________________________

Some racial/ethnic groups have greater chance of developing high blood pressure

2018

https://medicalxpress.com/news/2018-02-racialethnic-groups-greater-chance-high.html

People who are African-American, American Indian/native Alaskan, Asian, or native Hawaiian and other Pacific Islanders have a significantly greater chance of developing hypertension than people who are white or Hispanic who are in the same weight category or live in neighborhoods with similar education levels...


__________________________________

Racial Differences in Hypertension: Implications for High Blood Pressure Management

2014

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4108512/


Abstract

The racial disparity in hypertension and hypertension-related outcomes has been recognized for decades with African Americans with greater risks than Caucasians. Blood pressure levels have consistently been higher for African Americans with an earlier onset of hypertension. While awareness and treatment levels of high blood pressure have been similar, racial differences in control rates are evident. The higher blood pressure levels for African Americans are associated with higher rates of stroke, end-stage renal disease and congestive heart failure. The reasons for the racial disparities in elevated blood pressure and hypertension-related outcomes risk remain unclear. However, the implications of the disparities of hypertension for prevention and clinical management are substantial identifying African American men and women with excel hypertension risk and warranting interventions focused on these differences. In addition, focused research to identify the factors attributed to these disparities in risk burden is an essential need to address the evidence gaps.



__________________________________

Differences in blood pressure control in a large population-based sample of older African Americans and non-Hispanic whites

2012

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22496537/

 Abstract

Background: Cardiovascular disease is the main cause of death in older adults. Uncontrolled blood pressure is an important risk factor for cardiovascular disease. African Americans have poorer blood pressure control than non-Hispanic whites. Little is known about whether this difference persists in older ages or the factors that contribute to this racial gap. 

__________________________________

African Americans are More Likely to Develop High Blood Pressure by Middle Age

August 09, 2018

https://www.cardiosmart.org/news/2018/8/african-americans-are-more-likely-to-develop-high-blood-pressure-by-middle-age

Black adults are up to two times more likely to develop high blood pressure by age 55 compared to whites, with many of these racial differences developing before age 30, concludes a study recently published in the Journal of the American Heart Association.

Known as the CARDIA Study (Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults), this study tracked the blood pressure of U.S. adults from young adulthood through middle age. It included 3,890 adults between the ages of 18 and 30, all of who were free of high blood pressure at baseline and followed for up to 30 years.


__________________________________

The relation between chronic neck pain and hypertension (Ashatra city study)

2019

https://medcraveonline.com/MOJOR/MOJOR-11-00476.pdf


__________________________________

 

 How A Pain In The Neck Could Be Bad For Your Blood Pressure

August 2, 2007

https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/08/070802090711.htm

 

__________________________________

 

Anatomical factors relative to the racial selectivity of femoral neck fracture

January 1968

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ajpa.1330280118

 

__________________________________

Why Is Hypertension More Common in African Americans?

https://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/407721


__________________________________

 

Pathophysiology of Hypertension in Blacks and Whites

https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1161/01.HYP.1.5.468


__________________________________

 

 Hyperuricemia May Be a Risk Factor for Stroke Mediated by Severe Hypertension

January 15, 2020

https://www.thecardiologyadvisor.com/home/topics/hypertension/hyperuricemia-may-represent-a-risk-factor-for-stroke/

 

__________________________________


Hyperuricemia in Children and Adolescents: Present Knowledge and Future Directions

2019

https://www.hindawi.com/journals/jnme/2019/3480718/

 

__________________________________

Hypertensive retinopathy in Afro-Caribbeans and Europeans. Prevalence and risk factor relationships

1995

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7768581/

 

__________________________________


Racial differences in incident hypertension driven by diet, education level

October 02, 2018

https://www.healio.com/news/cardiology/20181002/racial-differences-in-incident-hypertension-driven-by-diet-education-level

Racial differences in men and women regarding incident hypertension were related to the dietary ratio of sodium to potassium, Southern dietary pattern and education level, according to a study published in JAMA.

Other key factors in women but not men included BMI and waist circumference, according to the study.



__________________________________

Racial disparities in the prevalence and control of hypertension among a cohort of HIV-infected patients in the southeastern United States

2018

https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0194940

Abstract

Background

African Americans are disproportionately affected by both HIV and hypertension. Failure to modify risk factors for cardiovascular disease and chronic kidney disease such as hypertension among HIV-infected patients may attenuate the benefits conferred by combination antiretroviral therapy. In the general population, African Americans with hypertension are less likely to have controlled blood pressure than whites. However, racial differences in blood pressure control among HIV-infected patients are not well studied.


__________________________________


Racial differences in idiopathic intracranial hypertension

March 10, 2008

https://n.neurology.org/content/70/11/861


Conclusion: Black patients with idiopathic intracranial hypertension (IIH) were more likely than non-black patients with IIH to have severe visual loss in at least one eye. This difference did not appear to result from diagnosis, treatment, or access to care, but may partially relate to differences in other risk factors. Black patients have a more aggressive disease and may need closer follow-up and lower thresholds for early intervention.


__________________________________

Neighborhood Stressors and Race/Ethnic Differencesin Hypertension Prevalence (The Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis)

2009

https://scholar.harvard.edu/files/davidrwilliams/files/PDF_2.pdf

 

__________________________________


Racial health disparities are rampant in hypertension

2018

https://www.ama-assn.org/delivering-care/hypertension/racial-health-disparities-are-rampant-hypertension



__________________________________


Black and Hispanic Americans at higher risk of hypertension, diabetes, obesity: Time to fix our broken food system

August 7, 2020

https://www.brookings.edu/blog/up-front/2020/08/07/black-and-hispanic-americans-at-higher-risk-of-hypertension-diabetes-obesity-time-to-fix-our-broken-food-system/

 

__________________________________


Racial differences in stress-induced cardiovascular reactivity and hypertension: Current status and substantive issues.

Jan 1989

https://psycnet.apa.org/buy/1989-16020-001

Abstract

Essential hypertension is perhaps the number-one health problem of Black Americans. Research has indicated that stress-induced cardiovascular hyperreactivity may be a significant contributor to essential hypertension. The high prevalence of hypertension among Blacks suggests that this group, in comparison with Whites, may be particularly susceptible to cardiovascular hyperreactivity. The first portion of this article reviews research to date that has examined racial differences in resting and stressor-induced cardiovascular activity. The second half of this article overviews some critical methodological and conceptual issues involved in the study of racial differences in reactivity. These issues include the effects of Black-White differences in plasma renin levels and sodium excretion, the effects of experimenter race, and differences in perceptions of the laboratory environment. Additionally, the issue of racial group classification and the implications this has for interpreting Black-White differences in reactivity is discussed. Two perspectives on racial group classification, the genetic and the sociocultural, are addressed in some detail, and the relevance of each to research on racial differences in stress reactivity is presented.


__________________________________

 

 MESA and ABO

http://www.mesa-nhlbi.org/MesaInternal/PresFeb2015/11_Larson_MESA_steering_ABO_Feb2015.pptx


__________________________________

Blood pressure demographics: nature or nurture ... ... genes or environment?

2005

https://bmcmedicine.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1741-7015-3-3


__________________________________


Ancient human genomes suggest three ancestral populations for present-day Europeans

2015

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4170574/


__________________________________

Upper Palaeolithic genomes reveal deep roots of modern Eurasians

2015

https://www.nature.com/articles/ncomms9912



__________________________________



Diverse genetic origins of medieval steppe nomad conquerors – a response to Mikheyev et al. (2019)

https://arxiv.org/ftp/arxiv/papers/2001/2001.03911.pdf


AbstractRecently, Mikheyev et al. (2019) have produced a preprint study describing the genomes of nine Khazars archeologically dated from the 7th to the 9th centuries found in the Rostov county in modern-day Russia. Skull morphology indicated a mix of “Caucasoid” and “Mongoloid” shapes. The authors compared the samples to ancient and contemporary samples to study the genetic makeup of the Khazars and their genetic legacy and addressed the question of the relationships between the Khazar and Ashkenazic Jews. A careful examination reveals grave concerns regarding all the aspects of the study from the identification of the “Khazar” samples, the choice of environment for ancient DNA sequencing, and the analyses. The authors did not disclose the data used in their study, and their methodology is incoherent. We demonstrate that their analyses yield nonsensical results and argue that none of the claims made in this study are supported by the data unequivocally. Provided the destruction of the bone samples and the irreproducibility of the analyses, even by the forgivable standards of the field, this study is irreplicable, wasteful, and misleading.


__________________________________



Ancient and recent admixture layers in Sicily and Southern Italy trace multiple migration routes along the Mediterranean

May 16, 2017

https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-017-01802-4

 

__________________________________

 

Diluting blood plasma rejuvenates tissue, reverses aging in mice

June 15, 2020

https://news.berkeley.edu/2020/06/15/diluting-blood-plasma-rejuvenates-tissue-reverses-aging-in-mice/

__________________________________



What are the rarest and most common blood types?

https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/most-common-blood-type-by-race


People can define blood types using the ABO and Rhesus (Rh) blood group systems. These define blood types according to which antigens are present on red blood cells.
ABO system

This system classifies blood types as follows:

    Blood group A has A antigens on the red blood cells.
    Blood group B has B antigens.
    Blood group O has neither A nor B antigens.
    Blood group AB has both A and B antigens.

Rh system

Red blood cells may have another antigen called the Rh antigen on their surface. If it is present, the blood group is Rh-positive, but if it is absent, the blood group is Rh-negative.

Combining these two characteristics yields the eight most common blood types. Most people have one of these types:

    O-positive
    O-negative
    A-positive
    A-negative
    B-positive
    B-negative
    AB-positive
    AB-negative

The genes that a person inherits from their parents determine the mix of antigens and proteins in their blood. Due to this genetic factor, the American Red Cross suggest that when people need blood, especially those with rare blood types, the best matches tend to come from people of the same race or ethnic background.

Inherited characteristics, such as blood types, tend to run in ethnic groups. To increase the likelihood of well-matched blood types, experts recommend matching donors and recipients along ethnic lines, particularly for rare blood types. For this reason, some blood centers collect ethnic information from blood donors.

For some conditions, such as thalassemia and sickle cell disease, this matching is even more important because these conditions are more common among certain ethnic communities, and people may need frequent transfusions.

For example, only 2% of donors have a rare subtype of blood that doctors often use to treat sickle cell disease, but demand for it is increasing by 10–15% each year. The rarity of and demand for this type of blood emphasize the importance of blood donors.




__________________________________

Race and Blood – Part 1

March 5, 2013

http://thewhitenetwork-archive.com/2013/03/05/race-and-blood-part-1/


The Rhesus Blood Group

Rhesus negative (Rh-) is found almost exclusively among Europeans, with the highest incidence among the Basque. The genetic mutation behind it seems to have appeared about 35,000 years ago. There is some mystery and confusion about the nature of Rh- and its origins. It appears to be an ancient European trait, pre-dating the Aryan invasions. The indigenes in several locations known to have been lately occupied by Cro-Magnons also exhibit relatively high incidence of Rh-. See, for example, The RH Negative Blood Type: Basque & The Cro-Magnon.

In the most prominent anti-“racist” sources not much is made of the fact that Rh- is distinctive of Whites. Into the vacuum created by this reticence floods all manner of speculation having to do with Rh- being the dominant blood type among European leaders, presidents and royalty, and somehow related to the Merovingians. Some of it veers into weirdness concerning extraterrestrials and/or reptilians.

Special-care pregnancies – Blood Group (Rh) Incompatibility concerns Rhesus disease, which afflicts Rh- women with Rh+ babies, usually during their second and subsequent pregnancies. A racial difference which is an apparent liability for Whites.



__________________________________

What's the Rarest Blood Type?

April, 2019

https://www.livescience.com/36559-common-blood-type-donation.html

In general, the rarest blood type is AB-negative and the most common is O-positive. Here's a breakdown of the most rare and common blood types by ethnicity, according to the American Red Cross.

O-positive:

    African-American: 47 percent
    Asian: 39 percent
    Caucasian: 37 percent
    Latino-American: 53 percent

O-negative:

    African-American: 4 percent
    Asian: 1 percent
    Caucasian: 8 percent
    Latino-American: 4 percent

A-positive:

    African-American: 24 percent
    Asian: 27 percent
    Caucasian: 33 percent
    Latino-American: 29 percent

A-negative:

    African-American: 2 percent
    Asian: 0.5 percent
    Caucasian: 7 percent
    Latino-American: 2 percent

B-positive:

    African-American: 18 percent
    Asian: 25 percent
    Caucasian: 9 percent
    Latino-American: 9 percent

B-negative:

    African-American: 1 percent
    Asian: 0.4 percent
    Caucasian: 2 percent
    Latino-American: 1 percent

AB-positive:

    African-American: 4 percent
    Asian: 7 percent
    Caucasian: 3 percent
    Latino-American: 2 percent

AB-negative:

    African-American: 0.3 percent
    Asian: 0.1 percent
    Caucasian: 1 percent
    Latino-American: 0.2 percent

A person's blood type is based on whether or not they have certain molecules or proteins — called antigens — on the surface of their red blood cells, according to the National Institutes of Health. Two of the main antigens used for blood typing are known as "A antigen" and "B antigen." People with type A blood only have A antigens on their red blood cells and those with type B blood have only B antigens. Individuals with type AB blood have both; people with type O blood have neither.

Another protein, the "Rh factor" – also known as the "Rhesus" system – is also present or absent on red blood cells. A person's blood type is designated as "positive" if they have the Rh protein on their red blood cells, and "negative" if they don't have this protein.

A person's blood type is genetic, inherited from his or her parents, according to the Red Cross.

Blood typing is particularly important for blood transfusions, because certain antigens on blood cells can trigger a person's immune system to attack the donated blood.

People who are Rh-negative can only receive Rh-negative blood, but people who are Rh- positive can receive either Rh-positive or Rh-negative blood, the Red Cross says.

What's more, type A blood can be used for transfusions for patients with type A or type AB blood; type B blood can be used for patients with type B or type AB blood; and type AB blood can be used for patients with type AB blood. People with type O blood are called "universal donors" because this type can be used for patients with any blood type.

Type O blood is often in short supply in hospitals, due to demand for this universal donor type, according to the Red Cross. In particular, type O-negative blood is in high demand because it's the one most often used for emergencies, when there may not be time to determine a patient's blood type.



__________________________________

Blood Types: History, Genetics, and Percentages Around the World

Nov 14, 2018

https://owlcation.com/stem/Blood-Types-History-Genetics-and-Percentages-around-the-World

__________________________________

Race, ABO Blood Type and VTE Risk: Not Black and White

2012

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3566784/

Abstract

The rate of venous thromboembolism (VTE) has been reported to be higher in blacks compared to whites. Non-O blood types have also been associated with a significantly higher VTE risk. Given that a higher proportion of blacks have O blood type, one might have expected that black individuals would have fewer VTE. In this study, we analyzed race, gender, age, ABO/Rh blood type and VTE risk in 60,982 black and white patients admitted over a span of 10 years. The overall occurrence of VTE was 7.6%, higher in males (8.7% males vs. 7.2% females), higher in non-O blood types (8.5% non-O vs. 6.9% O blood type), and increasing with age (5.8% <65yrs, 11.3% ≥65yrs). No difference in VTE rate was noted with Rh antigen positivity. When stratified by age, VTE rate was consistently higher in blacks and non-O blood types. No difference was detected among the various non-O blood types. To assess the potential confounder of comorbidities, we stratified patients according to Charlson comorbidity score. In a subgroup of healthy patients with age-independent Charlson comorbidity scores of 0 (N=28,387), blacks still had an increased VTE risk and this risk was still higher with increasing age and in those with non-O blood types. We conclude that black race and non-O blood types have increased VTE risk when stratified for age and that associated comorbidities do not explain these differences.

__________________________________

ABO blood group is associated with peripheral arterial disease in African Americans: The Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis (MESA)

2017

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5410192/


Highlights

•

    Risk of lower-extremity atherosclerosis differs by blood type.
•

    Type A was associated lower ankle brachial index in African Americans.
•

    Each copy of the A allele corresponded to 1.57-fold greater odds of PAD.



__________________________________

Relationship between ABO blood groups and cardiovascular disease in type 1 diabetes according to diabetic nephropathy status

May 19, 2020

https://cardiab.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12933-020-01038-z


__________________________________

Blood Groups Distribution and Gene Diversity of the ABO and Rh (D) Loci in the Mexican Population

2018

https://www.hindawi.com/journals/bmri/2018/1925619/


__________________________________

ABO Blood Group Associations with markers of endothelial dysfunction in the multi-ethnic study of atherosclerosis

2016

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4983247/


__________________________________




ABO and Rh(D) phenotype frequencies of different racial/ethnic groups in the United States

June 2004

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/8599660_ABO_and_RhD_phenotype_frequencies_of_different_racialethnic_groups_in_the_United_States


Abstract

Commonly quoted ABO/Rh(D) frequencies in the US are usually from relatively small studies with racial or ethnic categories often judged by name or appearance. A 10-year demographic database that contained racial or ethnic and ABO/Rh(D) phenotype data on 3.1 million allogeneic and autologous donors giving blood at five blood centers in the US was used to compute ABO and Rh(D) phenotypes in various racial/ethnic groups. The racial or ethnic category was designated by the donor. The highest percentage of Group O was found in Hispanic (56.5%), North American Indian (54.6%), and black non-Hispanic (50.2%) donors. Hispanic and black non-Hispanic donors had a much lower percentage (7.3 and 7.1%, respectively) of Rh- compared to white non-Hispanic donors (17.3%). Group O Rh- and Group B Rh- were found more commonly (8.0 and 1.8%, respectively) in white non-Hispanic donors than in Hispanic (3.9 and 0.7%), black non-Hispanic (3.6 and 1.3%), and Asian (0.7 and 0.4%) donors. These data confirmed that the highest percentages of ORh+, BRh+/ABRh+, and Rh- are present in Hispanic, Asian, and white non-Hispanic donors, respectively. These are the largest and most accurate data of ABO/Rh(D) phenotype frequencies for the major racial/ethnic donor groups in the US.



__________________________________




Racial Difference in Incidence of ABO Hemolytic Disease

1976

https://ajph.aphapublications.org/doi/pdf/10.2105/AJPH.66.9.854


Abstract:

In this review of 7,464 consecutive infants born at North Carolina Memorial Hospital, hemolytic disease from ABO incompatibility was found to be two to three times as common in black infants as in white infants.

__________________________________


How Blood-Plasma Companies Target the Poorest Americans

March 15, 2018

The industry’s business model depends on there being plenty of people who need cash quickly.

https://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2018/03/plasma-donations/555599/


__________________________________

Frequencies and ethnic distribution of ABO and RhD blood groups in China: a population-based cross-sectional study

https://bmjopen.bmj.com/content/7/12/e018476


Abstract

Objectives ABO and RhD blood groups are key factors affecting blood transfusion safety. The distribution of ABO and RhD blood groups varies globally, but limited data exist for ethnic distributions of these blood groups in Asian populations. We aimed to evaluate the distribution of ABO and RhD blood groups among Chinese ethnic groups.

Design A population-based cross-sectional study.

Setting Data on ABO groups and ethnicities were obtained from the National Free Preconception Health Examination Project (NFPHEP) with participants from 220 counties of 31 provinces in China

Participants There were 3 832 034 participants aged 21–49 years who took part in the NFPHEP from January 2010 to December 2012 and were included in this study.

Outcome Measures The proportion of ABO and RhD blood groups among different ethnic groups was calculated.

Results ABO and RhD blood distribution was significantly different among nine ethnic groups (P<0.001). Compared with other ethnic groups, the Yi group had more A phenotypes (34.0%), and the Manchu (33.7%) and Mongolian (33.3%) ethnic groups had more B phenotypes. The Zhuang group had the greatest proportion of O phenotypes (41.8%), followed by the Miao group (37.7%). AB phenotypes were more frequent in the Uygur ethnic group (10.6%) but lower in the Zhuang group (5.5%). Meanwhile, RhD negativity (RhD–) was greater in the Uygur group (3.3%) than in the Mongolian (0.3%) and Manchu ethnic groups (0.4%). O RhD– blood groups were more frequent in the Uygur group (0.8%) than in the other ethnic groups (0.1%–0.4%, P<0.001).

Conclusion ABO and RhD blood phenotypes vary across different ethnic groups in China. The diversity in the distribution of the ABO and RhD blood groups in different ethnic groups should be considered when developing rational and evidence-based strategies for blood collection and management.


__________________________________

ABO Blood Type and Longevity

January 2011

https://academic.oup.com/ajcp/article/135/1/96/1766172


__________________________________

The ABO Histo-Blood Group and AKI in Critically Ill Patients with Trauma or Sepsis

2015

https://cjasn.asnjournals.org/content/10/11/1911


__________________________________



The Influence of Race on Plasma Thrombin Generation In Healthy Subjects In Singapore

December 4, 2017

https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/1076029617744319

Abstract

Race is touted as an independent risk factor for venous thromboembolism (VTE), although the basis for this is varied and contentious. Comparison of plasma thrombin generation (TG) using calibrated automated thrombogram (CAT) across races offers a modality that objectively measures global hemostatic function to evaluate this influence. Direct comparative data across races are currently not available. Aim is to establish the influence of race on plasma TG. Sixty normal participants, matched for age and gender, equally representing 4 races—Caucasian, Chinese, Indian, and Malay—were recruited. Thrombin generation parameters (lag time, time to peak, peak, and endogenous thrombin potential [ETP]) in platelet-poor plasma were measured using CAT. The mean ETP (standard deviation) for the different races were Caucasians: 1338.18 (194.19) nM·min; Chinese, 1318.91 (108.90) nM·min; Indians, 1389.81 (182.61) nM·min; and Malays, 1436.21 (184.24) nM·min. Caucasians had the longest mean lag time of 2.59 ± 0.37 seconds; Indians had the highest mean peak of 284.22 ± 30.74 nM, and Malays had the longest mean time to peak of 5.47 ± 0.59 seconds. Analysis based on race did not demonstrate any significant difference for all TG parameters. The greatest mean difference of ETP between any 2 races (Malays and Chinese) was 117.30 nM·min (95% confidence interval: −45.86 to 280.46 nM·min) which was within the predefined limit of equivalence. In a cohort of healthy participants, TG mediated by plasma factors is not influenced by race and does not explain the reported racial differences in VTE incidence. For the 4 racial groups studied, the use of separate normal ranges for plasma TG might not be essential.

__________________________________




Urinary kallikrein and plasma renin activity as determinants of renal blood flow. The influence of race and dietary sodium intake.

July 1, 1977

https://www.jci.org/articles/view/108749

Abstract

We investigated the relationship of the kallikrein-kinin system and the renin-angiotensin system in the regulation of blood pressure, salt and water excretion, and renal blood flow. Normotensive and hypertensive black and white men were studied during unresticted sodium intake as well as on a 10-meq/day sodium intake; potassium intake was held constant throughout the study (80 meq/day). During unrestricted sodium intake, urinary kallikrein activity was greater in white normotensives than white hypertensives or black normotensives. There was no difference (P greater than 0.05) between white and black hypertensives or between black normotensives and black hypertensives. All groups had greater urinary kallikrein activity on low sodium vs. unrestricted sodium intake, but the increase in black hypertensives was small, and they excreted significantly less kallikrein than the ogher groups on the low sodium diet. Plasma renin activity showed similar increments after sodium restriction in all groups. Urinary kallikrein activity correlated with renal blood flow in all groups except the black normotensives on low sodium intake. Renal blood flow could be correlated uniformly with log (urinary kallikrein activity/supine plasma renin activity) in all groups on either diet. Urinary sodium and potassium excretion and urine volume were not different among the groups. We conclude: (a) important racial differences exist in urinary kallikrein activity that are unrelated to sodium or potassium excretion or urine volume; (b) dietary sodium restriction further delineates racial differences and suggests alternative pathophysiologic mechanisms for huma hypertension; (c) urinary kallikrein activity correlates with renal blood flow; and (d) our data support the concept that the kallikrein-kinin system and the renin-angiotensin system contribute to the regulation of renal blood flow and may account for racial differences in renal vascular resistance.

__________________________________

Racial Differences in Aldosterone Excretion and Plasma Aldosterone Concentrations in Children

October 26, 1989


https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJM198910263211703

Abstract

Blacks are more likely to have hypertension, have lower levels of plasma renin activity, and typically consume less potassium than whites. Whether blacks and whites secrete different amounts of aldosterone is less clear. We estimated aldosterone secretion indirectly in 715 children, 249 of whom were black, by measuring their nocturnal rates of urinary excretion of aldosterone. Dietary sodium and potassium intakes were estimated from their excretion rates.

 

The mean (±SE) aldosterone-excretion rate was lower in the black children than in the white children (0.045±0.003 vs. 0.078±0.004 nmol per micromole of creatinine per kilogram of body weight; P<0.001). The potassium-excretion rate was also lower in the black children than in the white children (0.13+0.01 vs. 0.18±0.01 mmol per micromole of creatinine per kilogram; P<0.001). Aldosterone excretion was highly correlated with potassium excretion (P<0.001), but the lower aldosterone-excretion rate in blacks was explained only in part by their lower dietary intake of potassium. Systolic blood pressure was higher in black children (P<0.001), as was diastolic pressure (P = 0.037). In a second study of 99 children, the plasma aldosterone level was found to be significantly lower in black children than in white children (230±30 vs. 400±30 pmol per liter; P<0.001). Plasma renin activity and plasma cortisol levels were the same in both groups.

 

In summary, we found that black children secrete about 40 percent less aldosterone than white children. The role of the lower aldosterone-secretion rate in the genesis of the higher blood pressures observed in black children is not known.

__________________________________



Plasma Insulin Levels and Incidence of Hypertension in African Americans and Whites

March 8, 1999

https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamainternalmedicine/fullarticle/484968


__________________________________



Lipoprotein (a): impact by ethnicity and environmental and medical conditions

2015

https://www.jlr.org/content/57/7/1111.full


Abstract

Levels of lipoprotein (a) [Lp(a)], a complex between an LDL-like lipid moiety containing one copy of apoB, and apo(a), a plasminogen-derived carbohydrate-rich hydrophilic protein, are primarily genetically regulated. Although stable intra-individually, Lp(a) levels have a skewed distribution inter-individually and are strongly impacted by a size polymorphism of the LPA gene, resulting in a variable number of kringle IV (KIV) units, a key motif of apo(a). The variation in KIV units is a strong predictor of plasma Lp(a) levels resulting in stable plasma levels across the lifespan. Studies have demonstrated pronounced differences across ethnicities with regard to Lp(a) levels and some of this difference, but not all of it, can be explained by genetic variations across ethnic groups. Increasing evidence suggests that age, sex, and hormonal impact may have a modest modulatory influence on Lp(a) levels. Among clinical conditions, Lp(a) levels are reported to be affected by kidney and liver diseases.


Lipoprotein (a) levels in different population groups

One of the most distinctive features regarding lipoprotein (a) [Lp(a)] has been the variability in levels between different population groups. Although substantial knowledge has been obtained regarding genetic variability of apo(a) between different populations, the underlying causes for this difference in levels are still largely unresolved. Early population studies investigating the association of Lp(a) with coronary artery disease (CAD) risk were largely conducted in European populations (1–4). However, striking differences in Lp(a) concentrations and distribution were noted by several groups. As an example, Blacks have a mean Lp(a) concentration twice as high as in Whites (5–8). Beyond Blacks and Whites, a hetero­geneous distribution of Lp(a) concentration across Asian populations was noted with substantially elevated Lp(a) concentrations in Indians as compared with Chinese, a finding confirmed in other studies (Table 1) (7, 9). The Lp(a) distribution pattern among Chinese was closer to Whites; while among Indians, the pattern was intermediate between those of Blacks and Whites. These findings were extended to seven ethnic groups, representing Caucasians (Tyrolean, Icelandic, Hungarian), Asians (Indian, Chinese, Malay), and Blacks (Sudanese), where the overall pattern was confirmed (10). Another study in four ethnic groups demonstrated a similar ethnic-specific difference with the mean Lp(a) concentration in Ghanaian Blacks being 1.6- to 2-fold higher than those of German, Chinese, or San populations, respectively (Table 1) (11). Also among children, mean Lp(a) levels were 1.7-fold higher in African-Americans versus Caucasians (12). Among the elderly, Lp(a) levels were higher in African-American men compared with Caucasians (13). Notably, a lower Black/White ratio was reported in many studies involving US Blacks versus non-US Blacks, possibly due to gene admixture (13). Among Mexican-Americans, men and women had significantly lower Lp(a) levels compared with their respective non-Hispanic White counterparts (14). Recent studies in a multi-ethnic population have emphasized the importance of race/ethnicity as a key variable in assigning Lp(a) cutoff values for CAD risk assessment and the need to develop the most clinically useful Lp(a) cutoff values in individual race/ethnicity groups (15).


__________________________________


Lipidomic profiling of plasma in a healthy Singaporean population to identify ethnic specific differences in lipid levels and associations with disease risk factors

December 2017


https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2376999817300387

Highlights

•

    Biological variation of lipid species across ethnic groups in Singapore is studied.
•

    LC–MS/MS is used to profile 280 lipid species in 359 individuals across 2 sites.
•

    Biological variation in plasma lipid species fluctuate between 13 and 120%.
•

    PE(O), PE(P) and S1P species were elevated in the Chinese group.
•

    Chinese and Malay groups showed a positive association of glycerolipids with BMI.


Abstract

Background

Plasma lipids (i.e., cholesterol, low density lipoprotein (LDL-C), high density lipoprotein (HDL-C) and triglycerides) are linked to a range of metabolic diseases, including heart disease and diabetes. Plasma lipid species have similarly been associated with the same diseases. However, neither abundance profiling of plasma lipid species in healthy populations, nor differences between ethnic groups has not been reported.

 

Methods

 

In this study, we have profiled over 280 lipid species using liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry, independently across two sites, in 359 healthy Singaporean individuals of Chinese (n = 122), Indian (n = 120) and Malay (n = 117) ethnicity.

 

Results

 

We found variations in abundance (defined as % coefficient of variation) of plasma lipid species that fluctuated between 13 and 120%. Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) identified differences between ethnic groups, particularly among alkyl and alkenylphosphatidylethanolamine species, as well as in two species of sphingosine-1-phosphate (i.e., d18:0 and d18:1), which were elevated in the Chinese group. Regression analysis identified ethnic-specific differences in the association of plasma lipids and lipid species with age, gender and body mass index (BMI). Chinese and Malay groups showed a positive association of glycerolipids (i.e., diglycerides (DG), triglycerides (TG)) and cholesteryl esters (CE) with BMI, but this was not seen in the Indian group. Furthermore, Indian and Malay groups showed a positive association between the abundance of sphingolipids and age, which was absent in the Chinese group.

 

Conclusions

 

This study provides baseline characterisation of the natural biological variation of plasma lipid species in three healthy ethnic groups, and identifies important differences in plasma lipid levels and their association with known disease risk factors.

__________________________________




Racial Differences in Plasma Levels of N-Terminal Pro-B-Type Natriuretic Peptide and Outcomes

2018

https://europepmc.org/articles/pmc5833525/bin/jamacardiol-3-11-s001.pdf


__________________________________


Ethnic Disparity in the Relationship between Obesity and Plasma Insulin-Like Growth Factors: The Multiethnic Cohort

2006

http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.596.4529&rep=rep1&type=pdf


__________________________________

 

Racial differences between African-American and white women in insulin resistance and visceral adiposity are associated with differences in apoCIII containing apoAI and apoB lipoproteins

December 17, 2014

https://nutritionandmetabolism.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1743-7075-11-56

__________________________________

 

Correlation Between Midthigh Low- Density Muscle and Insulin Resistance in Obese Nondiabetic Patients in Korea

2003

https://care.diabetesjournals.org/content/26/6/1825

 

__________________________________


Why are Asian people eating rice thin?

April 19 2012

Genetic makeup. On average, Asians do not look like an average Caucasians or Africans. They have (on average) less musculature and a thinner build. This means that comparisons between the weight of Americans / Europeans and Asians using BMI is misleading, it exaggerates the difference. Asians can sometimes get “skinny fat” or even get diabetes at BMI levels that are considered normal for Caucasians (e.g BMI 24).

https://www.dietdoctor.com/why-are-asian-rice-eaters-thin


__________________________________



Study finds racial differences in eating patterns and food purchases among urban older women

November 07, 2016

Understanding dietary and shopping habits in elders may reduce disparities in nutrition-related health outcomes

https://www.umassmed.edu/news/news-archives/2016/11/study-finds-racial-differences-in-eating-patterns-food-purchases-among-urban-older-women/

 

__________________________________

Racial differences in correlations between reported dietary intakes of carotenoids and their concentration biomarkers

2011

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3076659/

 

__________________________________



The Importance of an Athlete's Digestive System

https://www.active.com/cycling/articles/the-importance-of-an-athlete-s-digestive-system-877639


__________________________________

Insights into digestion and absorption of major nutrients in humans

June 2010

https://journals.physiology.org/doi/full/10.1152/advan.00094.2009

 

__________________________________

How moving to another country can transform your gut microbiome

November 26, 2018

Researchers are trying to understand what governs gut microbial composition, and both ethnicity and migration appear to play a key role

https://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/gut-microbiome-ecosystem-moving-countries-migration-health-diet-a8641556.html


__________________________________

Gender, Age, Race and Lactose Intolerance: Is There Evidence to Support a Differential Symptom Response? A Scoping Review

Dec 2018

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6316196/


__________________________________


Genetic Interpretation of Racial/Ethnic Differences in Lactose Absorption and Tolerance: A Review

1981

https://www.jstor.org/stable/41464590?seq=1



__________________________________


What Ethnic or Racial Groups Tend to Have More Incidence of Lactose Intolerance?


https://www.livestrong.com/article/401472-what-ethnic-or-racial-groups-tend-to-have-more-incidence-of-lactose-intolerance/

 Statistics

It is normal for people to make less lactase as they age, but certain races generate more lactase than others. According to a May 2002 article in the "American Family Physician," some ethnic groups have high levels of lactose intolerance including up to 100 percent of Asians and Native Americans, 60 to 80 percent of African Americans and 50 to 80 percent of Latinos. Conversely, only up to 15 percent of those with northern European ancestry have symptoms of lactose intolerance.


__________________________________


Lactose IntoleranceAmong DifferentEthnic Groups

January 2012

https://catalog.dairymanagement-west.com/wp-content/uploads/Lactose-Intolerance-Among-Different-Ethnic-Groups.pdf


__________________________________

How Race And Age Factor In Lactose Intolerance

2016

https://www.keranews.org/health-science-tech/2016-03-21/how-race-and-age-factor-in-lactose-intolerance

Genetic component: People of Caucasian descent tend not to have lactose intolerance symptoms until later in age when compared to patients of African American descent, Hispanics, Asians. The reason for this is unclear, but it probably has to do with our ancestors and our dependence on cows and milk products in the past.

__________________________________

A Racial Difference in Incidence of Lactase Deficiency

September 19, 1966

A Survey of Milk Intolerance and Lactase Deficiency in Healthy Adult Males

https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/article-abstract/661375

 

__________________________________


Lactose Intolerance and Health Disparities Among African Americans and Hispanic Americans: An Updated Consensus Statement

Summer 2013

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0027968415301139

 

__________________________________

Racial Differences in the Effect of Early Milk Consumption on Peak and Postmenopausal Bone Mineral Density

2003

https://asbmr.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1359/jbmr.2003.18.11.1978


__________________________________

Lactose intolerant? Why most of us can’t digest milk

Mar 14, 2018

Digestive problem affects some ethnic groups more than others, but it’s a manageable condition

https://www.theweek.co.uk/64017/lactose-intolerant-why-most-of-us-can-t-digest-milk


__________________________________


Why Is Milk Being Called a White Supremacist Symbol?

Oct 24, 2018

Although research debunks white supremacists' claims about lactose intolerance, race has long played a role in American milk-drinking.

https://psmag.com/news/why-is-milk-being-called-a-white-supremacist-symbol


__________________________________


Africans' ability to digest milk linked to spread of cattle raising

March 13, 2014

https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2014/03/140313123133.htm


__________________________________


Why is there a High Prevalence of Lactose Intolerance in Brazil? - A Mini Review

August 2019

https://juniperpublishers.com/crdoj/pdf/CRDOJ.MS.ID.555822.pdf


__________________________________

Racial differences in the relationship between vitamin D, bone mineral density, and parathyroid hormone in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey

2011

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3093445/


Abstract

Summary

It is unclear whether optimal levels of 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25(OH)D) in whites are the same as in minorities. In adult participants of NHANES, the relationships between 25(OH)D, bone mineral density (BMD), and parathyroid hormone (PTH) differed in blacks as compared to whites and Mexican-Americans, suggesting that optimal 25(OH)D levels for bone and mineral metabolism may differ by race.

 

Introduction

 

Blacks and Hispanics have lower 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentrations than whites. However, it is unclear whether 25(OH)D levels considered “optimal” for bone and mineral metabolism in whites are the same as those in minority populations.

 

Methods

 

We examined the relationships between 25(OH)D and parathyroid hormone in 8,415 adult participants (25% black and 24% Mexican-American) in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys 2003–2004 and 2005–2006; and between 25(OH)D and bone mineral density in 4,206 adult participants (24% black and 24% Mexican-American) in the 2003–2004 sample.

 

Results

 

Blacks and Mexican-Americans had significantly lower 25(OH)D and higher PTH concentrations than whites (P<0.01 for both). BMD significantly decreased (P<0.01) as serum 25(OH)D and calcium intake declined among whites and Mexican-Americans, but not among blacks (P=0.2). The impact of vitamin D deficiency (25 (OH)D≤20 ng/ml) on PTH levels was modified by race/ethnicity (P for interaction, 0.001). Whereas inverse relationships between 25(OH)D and PTH were observed above and below a 25(OH)D level of 20 ng/ml in whites and Mexican-Americans, an inverse association between 25(OH)D and PTH was only observed below this threshold in blacks, with the slope of the relationship being essentially flat (P=0.7) above this cut-point, suggesting that PTH may be maximally suppressed at lower 25(OH)D levels in blacks than in whites or Mexican-Americans.

 

Conclusions

 

The relationships between 25(OH)D, BMD, and PTH may differ by race among US adults. Whether race-specific ranges of optimal vitamin D are needed to appropriately evaluate the adequacy of vitamin D stores in minorities requires further study.

__________________________________


Ethnic disparities in the dietary requirement for vitamin D during pregnancy: considerations for nutrition policy and research


https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/proceedings-of-the-nutrition-society/article/ethnic-disparities-in-the-dietary-requirement-for-vitamin-d-during-pregnancy-considerations-for-nutrition-policy-and-research/35D1FB455715DF38133B24AB7B8852BB/core-reader


__________________________________

Optimal vitamin D levels may vary for different ethnic and racial groups

August 14, 2019

https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2019/08/190814081211.htm

 

__________________________________


Ethnic differences in bone and mineral metabolismin healthy people and patients with CKD

2013

https://www.kidney-international.org/article/S0085-2538(15)56355-2/pdf

Ethnic differences in bone and mineral metabolismin healthy people and patients with CKD Vanda Jorgetti, Luciene M. dos Reis1and Susan M. Ott Nephrology Division, Medical School, University of Sa ̃o Paulo, Sa ̃o Paulo, Brazil and Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington DC, USA Several studies have shown racial differences in the regulation of mineral metabolism, in the acquisition of bonemass and structure of individuals. In this review, we examine ethnic differences in bone and mineral metabolism in normal individuals and in patients with chronic kidney disease. Black individuals have lower urinary excretion and increased intestinal calcium absorption, reduced levels of 25(OH)D, and high levels of 1.25(OH)2D and parathyroid hormone (PTH). Body phosphorus concentration is higher and the levels of FGF-23 are lower than in whites. Mineral density and bonearchitecture are better in black individuals. These differences translate into advantages for blacks who have stronger bones, less risk of fractures, and less cardiovascular calcification. In the United States of America, the prevalence of kidney disease is similar in different ethnic groups. However, black individuals progress more quickly to advanced stages of kidney disease than whites. This faster progression does not translate into increased mortality, higher in whites, especially in the first year of dialysis. Some ethnicity-related variations in mineral metabolism persist when individuals develop CKD. Therefore, black patients have lower serum calcium concentrations, less hyperphosphatemia, low levels of 25(OH)D, higher levels of PTH, and low levels of FGF-23 compared with white patients. Bone biopsy studies show that blacks have greater bone volume. The rate of fractures and cardiovascular diseases arealso less frequent. Further studies are required to better understand the cellular and molecular bases of these racial differences in bone mineral metabolism and thus better treat patients.


__________________________________

Weaker bones and white skin as adaptions to improve anthropological “fitness” for northern environments

November 6, 2019

https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00198-019-05167-4


Abstract

The vitamin D paradox relates to the lower risk of osteoporosis in people of sub-Saharan African ancestry (Blacks) compared with people of European ancestry (Whites). The paradox implies that for bone health, Blacks require less vitamin D and calcium than Whites do. Why should populations that migrated northward out of Africa have ended up needing more vitamin D than tropical Blacks? Human skin color became lighter away from the tropics to permit greater skin penetration of the UVB light that generates vitamin D. Lack of vitamin D impairs intestinal calcium absorption and limits the amount of calcium that can deposit into the protein matrix of bone, causing rickets or osteomalacia. These can cause cephalopelvic disproportion and death in childbirth. Whiter skin was more fit for reproduction in UV-light restricted environments, but natural selection was also driven by the phenotype of bone per se. Bone formation starts with the deposition of bone-matrix proteins. Mineralization of the matrix happens more slowly, and it stiffens bone. If vitamin D and/or calcium supplies are marginal, larger bones will not be as fully mineralized as smaller bones. For the same amount of mineral, unmineralized or partially mineralized bone is more easily deformed than fully mineralized bone. The evidence leads to the hypothesis that to minimize the soft bone that causes pelvic deformation, a decrease in amount of bone, along with more rapid mineralization of osteoid improved reproductive fitness in Whites. Adaptation of bone biology for reproductive fitness in response to the environmental stress of limited availability of vitamin D and calcium came at the cost of greater risk of osteoporosis later in life.

__________________________________

Ethnicity Is an Independent Correlate of Biomarkers of Micronutrient Intake and Status in American Adults

November 2007


https://academic.oup.com/jn/article/137/11/2456/4750743

Abstract

Diet may be among the factors that mediate the acknowledged ethnicity and socioeconomic differentials in health. Biomarkers of nutritional exposure avoid reliance on biased self-reports of diet and allow an objective assessment of dietary differentials associated with ethnicity and socioeconomic position. We used data from the NHANES III (n = 13113) and NHANES 1999–2002 (n = 7246) to examine ethnic, education, and income differentials in serum concentrations of nutrients of putative public health importance (vitamins C, D, and E, folate, carotenoids, selenium, and ferritin) in U.S. adults. Multiple regression methods were used to adjust for covariates and complex survey design to examine these associations. The serum β-cryptoxanthin and lutein + zeaxanthin concentrations, adjusted for education and income, were higher in nonwhites (P < 0.0001) relative to non-Hispanic whites. Non-Hispanic blacks had lower serum vitamins C and D, folate, and selenium concentrations relative to non-Hispanic-whites. The biomarker profile (except vitamin D, and folate and ferritin in women) of Mexican-Americans was comparable or better relative to non-Hispanic-whites. Ethnicity associations with mean biomarker concentrations generally paralleled these associations with the proportion of the population at risk of marginal concentrations. Education was an independent positive predictor of serum concentrations of several carotenoids and vitamin C (P ≤ 0.01). Both education and income were independent inverse predictors of risk of marginal vitamin C concentration in men (P ≤ 0.003). Relative to income, ethnicity and education were stronger independent predictors of several outcomes. Ethnic differences in status of several micronutrients persisted after adjustment for education and income, suggesting the importance of ethnicity-specific nutrition interventions.

__________________________________

Race/Ethnicity, Enrichment/Fortification, and Dietary Supplementation in the U.S. Population, NHANES 2009–2012

2019

https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6643/11/5/1005/htm


Abstract

In the United States (U.S.), food fortification and/or enrichment and dietary supplement (DS) use impacts nutrient intakes. Our aim was to examine race/ethnicity and income (Poverty Income Ratio, PIR) differences in meeting the Dietary Reference Intakes based on estimated dietary intakes among the U.S. population age ≥2 years (n = 16,975). Two 24-hour recalls from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) cycles 2009–2012 were used to estimate the intake of 15 nutrients as naturally occurring, enriched/fortified, and plus DSs. Across racial/ethnic groups and within PIR categories, significant differences were observed in the %< Estimated Average Requirement (EAR) for vitamin A following enrichment/fortification (E/F) and for vitamin B12 and riboflavin following both E/F and DS use when comparing non-Hispanic blacks, Hispanics, and the other race/ethnicity group to non-Hispanic whites. The %<EAR for iron and calcium also differed depending on race/ethnicity within PIR category (p < 0.05). The %<EAR was significantly lower for vitamin D after E/F for Hispanics, and after E/F combined with DS use for vitamins C and B6 for Hispanics and the other race/ethnicity group than non-Hispanic whites. Non-Hispanic blacks were inadequate in all nutrients examined except vitamin C based on the %<EAR than individuals of other races/ethnicities. Differences in the tolerable upper intake level (UL) of nutrients, especially folate and zinc, also varied by race/ethnicity and PIR category.



__________________________________



Racial Variations in Appetite-Related Hormones, Appetite, and Laboratory-Based Energy Intake from the E-MECHANIC Randomized Clinical Trial

2019

https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6643/11/9/2018/htm



__________________________________



Purdue study finds races react differently to dietary salt, calcium

May 10, 2005

https://www.purdue.edu/uns/html4ever/2005/050510.Weaver.retention.html

WEST LAFAYETTE, Ind. – African-American and Caucasian adolescent girls handle sodium and calcium differently, which may help explain why the races have different rates of hypertension and osteoporosis, according to research at Purdue University.

In a study published in the April edition of the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, nutrition researchers discovered Caucasian girls lose more calcium in their urine than African-American girls, but both races lose calcium at an accelerated rate when they consume a high-salt diet.

"While we found a racial difference in calcium retention in adolescents, we also confirmed that blacks retain more sodium on a high-salt diet than whites," said Connie Weaver, distinguished professor and head of Purdue's Department of Foods and Nutrition. "This proves that salt is processed differently in the races, but too much salt in the diet reduces bone density in both races."

One out of four Caucasians will be diagnosed with osteoporosis, a bone-loss disease that costs Americans $14 billion a year in health care. The disease strikes one out of 10 African-Americans, but studies show they are more susceptible to hypertension, Weaver said.

"Sodium causes water retention, which leads to high blood pressure, and that could be related to the high prevalence of hypertension in adult blacks," Weaver said. "So even though salt intake is less critical to blacks with respect to building bones, we still have to be concerned about how sodium affects heart health."



__________________________________




Genetic Factors Impacting Nutritional Requirement

Last Updated: Feb 27, 2019

https://www.news-medical.net/health/Genetic-Factors-Impacting-Nutritional-Requirement.aspx

 

__________________________________

Obesity may 'blunt' effect of race of bone parameters

July 09, 2020

https://www.healio.com/news/endocrinology/20200708/obesity-may-blunt-effect-of-race-on-bone-parameters


__________________________________


Weight Status and Sexual Orientation: Differences by Age and Within Racial and Ethnic Subgroups

 January 2014

https://ajph.aphapublications.org/doi/abs/10.2105/AJPH.2013.301391?utm_source=TrendMD&utm_medium=cpc&utm_campaign=Am_J_Public_Health_TrendMD_0


__________________________________



Black and Hispanic RRMS Patients Show High Levels of Immune Cells Linked to Antibodies, US Study Reports

November 22, 2019

https://multiplesclerosisnewstoday.com/news-posts/2019/11/20/certain-inflammatory-immune-cells-are-increased-in-african-americans-and-hispanicslatinoas-with-ms/


African-Americans and Hispanics with relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis (RRMS) have higher blood levels of plasmablasts, a type of inflammatory immune cell that produces antibodies, than do Caucasians with this disease, a study found.

The study “Black African and Latino/a identity correlates with increased plasmablasts in MS” was published in the journal Neurology, Neuroimmunology and Neuroinflammation.

Previous research supports MS progression being more severe in African-Americans and Hispanics and Latino-Americans compared to Caucasians. Among these two ethnic groups, brain atrophy (shrinkage) and retina degeneration occurs faster, and inflammation of the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) is more evident.

Still, few studies fairly represent patients by ethnic or racial background despite evident differences in disease course. According to the researchers, only 2.7% of all MS patients enrolled in seven Phase 3 clinical trials testing potential treatments between 2006 and 2017 were African-American.

Disease mechanisms underlying racial and ethnic differences in disease progression are also unknown.

Immune cells like plasmablasts and plasma cells (antibody-producing cells that derive from immune B-cells) have been linked to the inflammatory and neurodegenerative processes that occur in MS.

Previous research has also shown that black patients have higher levels than white patients of a type of antibody called IgG in their cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). High IgG levels are associated with greater atrophy of the brain’s gray matter.

To evaluate whether the levels of antibody-secreting cells could differ between MS patients of different ethnic groups, researchers at Weill Cornell Medicine in New York looked at the frequency of immune cells in blood samples from patients.

They analyzed samples from 74 people with RRMS — 27 African-Americans or Hispanics/Latinos, and 27 Caucasians — all treated with Tysabri (natalizumab), samples from 20  patients not on any disease-modifying therapy (12 black or Hispanic/Latino; eight white), and samples from 24 age- and ethnicity-matched healthy people (11 black or Hispanic/Latino; 13 white).

Tysabri was chosen because it does not destroy antibody-producing cells, which the team aimed to study.

Results showed that patients of African or Hispanic origin generally had a higher frequency of antibody-secreting cells compared to those of Caucasian ancestry. In particular, most of these cells were positive for a surface protein called CD86, a marker used to identify plasmablasts, and other subsets associated with a poorer prognosis and a more active MS disease course.

These differences in antibody-secreting cell levels by ethnicity were only found among MS patients; they were not evident among healthy controls.

Patients of African or Hispanic origin also showed signs of greater disease activity, taking a mean of 4.29 seconds to complete the timed 25-foot walk test compared to 3.70 seconds among Caucasian patients.

These findings showed that MS patients of African-American or Hispanic ancestry have higher levels of antibody-secreting cells like plasmablasts, and suggest this may be the cause of the more severe disease course seen in these people.

“This dysregulation may contribute to the disease disparity experienced by patient populations of Black African or Latin American ethno-ancestry,” the researchers wrote.

The team advised that “further study is necessary to confirm the results, and more fully understand their implications for improving the management of MS in these populations.”



__________________________________




Racial Difference of Blood Groups and Blood Types

1954

https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/pjab1945/30/5/30_5_405/_pdf


Result of Investigation Furuhata and others have already reported on the distributions of various blood groups and types in the Japanese race based on the following numbers of persons investigated in each group and type : 524,864 for ABO, 46,449 for MN, 8,911 for Q and 1,025 for Rh. With respect to the White and Negro races, 400 of the former and 100 of the latter were investigated for MN, Q and Rh blood types and for the ABO blood groups. The result is shown in Table I. Consideration Comparison of our result shown in Table I with those of others hitherto reported elsewhere indicates that the frequency distribu-tions of the ABO blood group and MN and Rh blood types in these races as found by us are very close to those reported by other investigators.


The biochemical race indices of the ABO blood groups as cal-culated from our figures shown in Table I are 2.49 for the White, 2.11 for the Negro and 1.53 for the Japanese, indicating distinct differences among these races. Furthermore, differences are recognized in the MN blood type distribution among the White, Negro and Japanese races. The frequency of the Rh-negatives is 13.7% in the White, 8.0% in the Negro, and only 0.4% in the Japanese. The fact that the erythroblastosis fetalis caused by the incom-patibility of the Rh blood type is very rare among the Japanese is due to the rarity of the Rh-negatives in this race. With regard to the Q blood type, further studies were made. Imamura showed that the Q blood type which he discovered is distinctly different from the P blood type by using the anti-P serum obtained from Landsteiner. Since racial distribution of the Q blood type was not studied then, we took up this problem for investiga-tion. As shown in Table V, the frequency of Q in the White is 56.7% and that of q 43.3%. These results are very similar to those found by Makino and Nagasaki (1953)13' in 33 English persons, 21 Americans and one Swiss. The frequency of Q in the Negro is 71% and that of q is 29%.

From these results it in the racial distribution is ofclearly seen that there the Q blood type amongare the differences Japanese, White and Negro races. It is also clear from a comparison of our results on the Q blood type with those of the P blood type reported hitherto on the White and the Negro, that the distributions of these two blood types are quite different from each other.


Summary The distribution of the ABO blood groups and the MN, Q and Rh blood types among the Japanese, the White and the Negro in Japan were investigated. Racial differences in the blood groups and types were found among the Japanese, the White and the Negro. In regard to the Q blood type there is also a distinct difference in the racial distribution, and the order of the frequency of Q is Japanese, White and Negro.



__________________________________

RACIAL & ETHNIC DISTRIBUTION of ABO BLOOD TYPES - BLOODBOOK.COM

Sorted by Population Groups

http://www.bloodbook.com/world-abo.html


__________________________________

Association of ABO blood groups with risk factors of intracranial cerebral aneurysm formation

2014

http://www.ijsronline.net/article.asp?issn=2321-6662;year=2014;volume=4;issue=2;spage=36;epage=40;aulast=Bir

 

__________________________________



Need for African American and Latino/Hispanic Blood Donors


https://nybc.org/donate-blood/become-donor/need-african-american-and-latinohispanic-blood-donors/  


There is a greater prevalence of type O blood in African American and Hispanic/Latino populations. Blood donations from African Americans and Hispanic/Latinos can treat a broader cross-section of patients than can blood donations from Caucasians.
    
The Hispanic/Latino population is increasing at a rate three times the national average for all other ethnic groups. Recruiting new and retaining current Hispanic blood donors is important to maintain the overall volume of blood in the U.S. system.
    
Certain African American and Hispanic/Latino patients, including those who have rare blood types or medical conditions necessitating multiple blood transfusions, like sickle cell disease, require very closely matched blood products.
    
These blood products many times can only be found in donors with the same racial or ethnic heritage.
    
Voluntary blood donation builds social capital – the network of social ties and moral obligation that is vital to our country’s economic well-being and to the health of its civil society.


__________________________________

Blood center goes on rant in defense of its 'racist' request

08.07.19

https://www.upworthy.com/blood-center-racist-request-rant

In fact, there are more than 30 different types of blood.

Second, depending on a person's race or ethnicity, they're more or less likely to have certain types of blood.

Blood groups are more or less common in different ethnic groups. So black people are more likely to have, say, B negative blood.



__________________________________

Black, Asian and minority ethnic communities


https://www.blood.co.uk/why-give-blood/demand-for-different-blood-types/black-asian-and-minority-ethnic-communities/


We need donors from all communities and ethnic backgrounds to donate blood so we can meet the needs of all patients in England now and in the years to come. Black, Asian and minority ethnic donors are specifically needed right now because:

    some patients who receive frequent blood transfusions need blood to be closely matched to their own

    a number of blood conditions, like sickle cell disease which is treated through blood transfusions, most commonly affect black, Asian and minority ethnic people

    the best match typically comes from blood donors from the same ethnic background.

Blood conditions and blood groups

Thalassaemia and sickle cell disease are blood conditions that most commonly affect people within the black, Asian and minority ethnic communities. The treatment of these conditions is much more successful using blood that is very closely matched to the patient's.



__________________________________



Racial Differences in Control of Blood Vessel Tone and Blood Flow


https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT00001747


__________________________________

Blood Types


https://www.giveapint.org/library/blood-types/


Over 100 years ago, it was discovered that people have different types of blood. Even though all blood consists of the same basic elements, not all blood is alike. The four main ABO blood types are O, A, B, and AB. Each is paired with a + or – Rh factor, which is determined by the presence or absence of substances that can trigger immune responses if they are foreign to the body. These substances are called antigens. Safe blood transfusions depend on careful blood typing and cross-matching. Click your type below to learn more about it.


 Type     You can give blood to      You can receive blood from
 A+     A+, AB+     A+, A-, O+, O-
 O+     O+, A+, B+, AB+     O+, O-
B+     B+, AB+     B+, B-, O+, O-
AB+     AB+     Everyone
A-     A+, A-, AB+, AB-     A-, O-
O-     Everyone     O-
B-     B+, B-, AB+, AB-     B-, O-
AB-     AB+, AB-     AB-, A-, B-, O-


__________________________________


Differences in plasma levels of long chain and very long chain ceramides between African Americans and whites: An observational study

 May 8, 2019

https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0216213


Abstract

Background

Population-wide reductions in cardiovascular disease (CVD) have not been equally shared in the African American community due to a higher burden of CVD risk factors such as metabolic disorders and obesity. Differential concentrations of sphingolipids such as ceramide, sphingosine, and sphingosine 1-phosphate (S1P) has been associated with the development of CVD, metabolic disorders (MetD), and obesity. Whether African Americans have disparate expression levels of sphingolipids that explain higher burdens of CVD remains unknown.

__________________________________


Racial differences in hemoglobin and plasma volume variation: implications for muscle performance and recovery

2016

https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13557858.2017.1315375


ABSTRACT

Objective: To examine the effect of race differences on sprint performance, Hemoglobin (Hb), Hematocrit (Ht) and plasma volume (PV) variation in response to repeated sprint exercise.

Design: Thirty-six healthy, moderately trained men and women (20.8 ± 0.2 year-old) volunteered to participate in this study. They were allocated to one of the four groups according to their gender and race: Black men’s group (BM, n = 9), White men’s group (WM, n = 9), Black women’s group (BW, n = 9) and White women’s group (WW, n = 9). All participants performed the running-based anaerobic sprint test (RAST), which consists of six 35-m sprints with 10 s of recovery in-between. Six venous blood samples were collected to determine Hb, Ht and PV levels at rest, after warm-up, immediately post- and at 5, 15 and 30 min post-RAST. Blood lactate is also sampled during the 3rd minutes of recovery.

Results: The best running time was significantly shorter (P = .002) in BW compared to WW. We have observed significantly higher Hb (P = .010) and Ht (P = .004) levels in BW compared to WW during the 5th minute of recovery. During RAST, the PV decreased significantly (P = .007) in WM only. Black groups had lower (P < .05) lactate levels compared to the white subjects. During recovery, PV increase was significantly (P = .003) higher in WW compared to BW during the 5th minute of recovery.

Conclusion: This study demonstrated that sprint and repeated sprint performances were different between white and black women. Differences in anaerobic performance between the groups were associated with racial differences in lactate levels and blood count among women’s group during recovery time. Hence, it is important to take into account this race-related difference in hematological parameters in responses to intense efforts.


__________________________________

Do Red Blood Cell Indices Explain Racial Differences in the Relationship between Hemoglobin A1c and Blood Glucose?

September 01, 2016

https://www.jpeds.com/article/S0022-3476(16)30335-3/fulltext


__________________________________

 

 
Lifelong differences in hemoglobin levels between Blacks and Whites

1975

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1133873/

__________________________________

Why is plasma renin activity lower in populations of African origin?

2001

https://www.nature.com/articles/1001127.pdf?origin=ppub

Plasma renin activity is significantly lower in blackpeople compared with whites independent of age and blood pressure status. The lower PRA appears to be due to a reduction in the rate of secretion of renin but the exact mechanistic events underlying such differences in renin release between blacks and whites are still not fully understood. Nevertheless, given the paramount importance of the renin-angiotensin system in the control of sodium balance, a most likely explanation is that the lower renin is a consequence of differences in renal sodium handling between blacks and whites. The lower PRA does not reflect differences in dietary sodium intake but the evidence available suggests that the low PRA could be part of the corrective mechanisms designed to maintain sodium balance in the presence of an increased tendency for sodium retention in black people. While it is possible that several factors may con-tribute to the reduced PRA, more recent investigation a
the  molecular  level  suggests  that  the  lower  PRA  mayarise from gene variation in the renal epithelial sodium channel. The functional significance of the lower PRA inrelation to the different pattern of cardiovascular and renal disease between blacks and whites remains unclear. Moreover, direct investigations of pre-treatment renin status in hypertensive blacks in relation to blood pressure response have demonstrated that the pre-treatment PRA is not a good index of subsequentblood pressure response to pharmacological treatment. Nevertheless, the blood pressure reduction to short term sodium restriction is greater in blacks compared with whites and, in the black subjects, the greater reduction in blood pressure to sodium restriction appears to be related, at least in part, to the decreased responsiveness of the renin-angiotensin system.


__________________________________

Analysis of Racial Disparity in Plasma of Healthy Volunteers Using Rotational Thromboelastometry Reveals Higher Prothrombotic Profile in African Americans

2014

https://ashpublications.org/blood/article/124/21/5972/101060/Analysis-of-Racial-Disparity-in-Plasma-of-Healthy

Racial differences in the incidence of arterial and venous thrombotic events are well established in literature, with a higher incidence noted in African Americans compared to Caucasians. Several studies have tried to explain this difference, by looking separately at chemical biomarkers, socioeconomic and clinical risk factors. Yet the exact reason behind this disparity remains unclear. At least one study of thrombin generation suggested that African ethnicity was associated with increased peak thrombin generation when compared to Caucasians. Rotational thromboelastometry is a visco-elastic methodology that offers a global assessment of hemostasis using either whole blood or plasma. We explored the racial differences in rotational thromboelastometry findings using plasma samples from healthy volunteers.

 

We studied a cohort of 9 otherwise healthy adult volunteers with no history of cardiovascular nor thromboembolic events, 5 African Americans and 4 Caucasians. After informed consent, we collected citrated whole blood samples and processed them within 3 hours of phlebotomy. Platelet free plasma, obtained after centrifugation of whole blood for 20 minutes, was kept frozen at -70°C, and then thawed at 37°C for 5 minutes prior to testing. Samples were re-calcified with star-tem^® reagent, and then the in-tem^® reagent was added. The latter contains an optimized concentration of ellagic acid and partial thromboplastin phospholipid from rabbit brain. Thromboelastometry parameters including Clot Formation Time, Alpha Angle, and Maximum Clot Firmness were determined. We then compared the data between the two study populations using parametric unpaired Student’s t-test.

 

Our results showed that the Clot Formation Time was higher in the plasma of Caucasians when compared to African Americans with a difference between means of 40.1 ± 4.4 seconds (p <.0001); the Alpha Angle was lower in Caucasians with a difference between means of 3.45 ± 0.3 degrees (p <.0001); and the Maximum Clot Firmness was lower in Caucasians with a difference between means of 9.75 ± 2 mm (p <.01). These findings demonstrated that the plasma of Caucasians took longer to reach the maximum firmness, and this maximum firmness was less than that reached in the plasma of African Americans. This reveals a significantly increased prothrombotic profile in the plasma of African Americans compared to Caucasians.

 

Despite the limited number of participants, the striking observed differences in the thromboelastometry parameters suggest that global assays may offer benefit in assessing thrombotic risks in disparate patient populations, as they incorporate multiple components of the hemostatic system. Higher numbers of subjects and assessment of both whole blood and plasma are indicated. We are currently in the process of expanding our cohort to confirm these preliminary results.

__________________________________



Age, Functional Status, and Racial Differences in Plasma D-Dimer Levels in Community-Dwelling Elderly Persons

November, 2000

https://academic.oup.com/biomedgerontology/article/55/11/M649/563341



__________________________________


Racial Differences in Plasma Endothelin-1 Concentrations in Individuals With Essential Hypertension

Oct 1996

https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/full/10.1161/01.HYP.28.4.652


__________________________________




Rh-Negative Blood: An Exotic Bloodline or Random Mutation?

22 May, 2020

https://www.ancient-origins.net/human-origins-science/rh-negative-blood-exotic-bloodline-or-random-mutation-008831


Most people who have the Rh blood type are Rh-positive. There are also instances, however, where people are Rh-Negative. Health problems may occur for the unborn child of a mother with Rh-Negative blood when the baby is Rh-Positive. This has led some to suggest that Rh-Negative blood must be of a non-human origin. Theories range from supernatural ones such as being of divine descent or membership in a divinely chosen people-group, to more scientific or pseudoscientific explanations such as interbreeding with extraterrestrials. The majority of scientists who have studied the blood type have concluded that it is most likely just a random mutation. This explanation seems to be the one most consistent with available evidence and the one that is most able to withstand Occam’s Razor.

What is unusual about Rh-Negative blood is that the gene for it is surprisingly common despite being potentially harmful. When a woman who is Rh-Negative is pregnant with a child that is Rh-Positive, the mother’s immune system creates protective anti-bodies to the Rh-Positive blood, and her blood essentially becomes toxic to the child. To some people, this looks like the mother’s body is rejecting the baby - which has led them to suggest that perhaps the reason for the rejection is incompatibility based on the mother and child being of different species. Others suggest that lineages with the gene for Rh-Negative blood are merely special in some way and were not meant to be mixed with lineages which are predominantly Rh-Positive.

Rh-Negative Blood Lineages

One population which contains an unusually high frequency of the gene for the Rh-Negative blood type are the Basques from northeastern Spain. The Basques have the highest incidence of the gene out of any population in the world. The Basques also speak a non-Indo-European language and have genetic markers that pre-date the rise of agriculture. This has led to speculation that Rh-Negative blood is related to Cro-Magnon ancestry going back to the upper Paleolithic period in Europe.

Among the more exotic theories is the idea that the Rh-Negative gene represents a separate branch of humanity that intermarried with the branch that came out of Africa. One blogger has gone as far as to say that those with Rh-Negative blood are descendants of the Hyperborean race, which they believe to be the original human race. Followers of this idea believe that this race was blonde-haired and blue-eyed and included most major spiritual teachers in history, including Jesus. 

 

 

 

                                         An artistic representation of Hyperborean women.

 

Some people who are not satisfied with the idea that those with RH- blood are another form of humanity have suggested that the trait originates from extraterrestrials either interbreeding with humans or creating humans through genetic engineering.
The Role of Genetics in Rh-Negative Blood

This unusual trait can, however, also be explained in terms of relatively mundane human genetics and natural selection. One possibility is that the gene for Rh-Negative blood has some sort of selective advantage that outweighed the negative consequences of having Rh-Negative blood.

A well-known example of this phenomenon would be the case of sickle cell anemia and malaria. A large percentage of the population in west Africa where malaria is common consists of carriers of the gene for sickle-cell anemia, although they don’t have the disease themselves. The reason is that just carrying the gene for sickle cell anemia gives the person carrying it immunity to Malaria. Although sickle-cell anemia is harmful, even deadly, carrying the gene gives a selective advantage and therefore it is much more common than would be expected. 

 

 

 

 

                           Sickle-cell disease is inherited in the autosomal recessive pattern. 

 

Scientists studying the effects of Rh-Negative blood have found that individuals carrying the gene for Rh-Negative blood are more resistant to certain parasites such as toxoplasma, which can threaten unborn children. It has also been found that there are more carriers of the gene in areas where toxoplasma is more common. This suggests that carriers of the gene for Rh-Negative blood might be more common than expected because there is a positive selective advantage, greater resistance to parasites, that outweighs the negative, possibly having a pregnancy where the mother’s blood endangers the unborn child.


As a result, it could be that some populations contain a higher occurrence rate of the gene not because of a unique lineage but because they are adapted to a region with a high prevalence of certain parasites such as toxoplasma. This would explain why the gene occurs in high frequency in populations that are not really connected other than the fact that they are  Homo Sapiens,  such as Basques and certain Jewish populations.

The Basques have an ancestry that, with other European groups, goes back to the European Upper Paleolithic. Yet the Jews ultimately descend from relatively recent Middle Eastern populations. This would make sense if the reason for the prevalence of the gene was because both the ancestral Basque and Jewish populations originated in an environment with similar selective factors rather than being of a common lineage.


Although it could still be that there is a common, unique ancestral lineage connecting populations with high prevalence of Rh-Negative blood, the fact that the populations where the gene occurs in high prevalence appear otherwise unrelated to each other makes it less likely and in need of more evidence.

    Study Casts New Light on Diseases We Inherited from Neanderthals
    The Serpent Scion: Mythic Traditions and the Brotherhood of the Snake - Part 1
    How Ancient Hominid Interbreeding has Shaped Humans Today

Could Rh-Negative Blood Come from Extraterrestrials?

The extraterrestrial explanation is even more problematic because the Rh-Negative gene is clearly a variation of an otherwise completely human gene. Unless it was specifically engineered by extraterrestrials from a pre-existing human gene, it is unlikely that it comes from anything other than  Homo Sapiens .

The other problem with the Rh-Negative blood type being the result of hybridization with extraterrestrials is that extraterrestrials are likely to have a completely different biology and genome than human beings. Their genome might not even be based on DNA - but something else such as RNA, or some exotic form of genetic storage that never evolved on Earth. This would make any viable hybrids very improbable if not impossible. As the astronomer Carl Sagan would have put it, it would be easier to make a human-tulip hybrid, than a human-extraterrestrial hybrid.

The unlikelihood and uncertainty of the other options make the explanation that the Rh-Negative blood type is just a mutation that became common in some populations due to a selective advantage the most likely option. It is also the one that most easily survives the application of Occam’s Razor. If this blood type was because of another human species, let alone extraterrestrials, many more unnecessary assumptions that are difficult to verify have to be made. As a result, the evidence currently points toward little more than an ordinary mutation as the cause of the Rh-Negative blood phenotype.


__________________________________

Does Rh Negative Blood Type Equal Alien Heritage?

January 30, 2010

https://in5d.com/does-rh-negative-blood-type-equal-alien-heritage/


__________________________________

 

 The MetroSpiritual: Does your DNA code prove that you're part Alien?

2016

https://www.nydailynews.com/life-style/metrospiritual-dna-code-prove-part-alien-article-1.2749097

 

__________________________________


Are rh negative people more likely to have red hair and/or freckles?

Jan 22, 2020

https://www.rhesusnegative.net/staynegative/popular-questions/are-rh-negative-people-more-likely-to-have-red-hair-andor-freckles/

Looking at the pictures of members on People with Rhesus Negative Bloodtype, it becomes very clear that out of 1,000s of members, more than half display signs of red hair and/or freckles.
But how exactly does that correlate with rh negative blood?
Just like the rh negative gene, the red hair gene (MC1R) is recessive.
1 in 4 people from the general population carries this red hair gene.
That means out of 2 random people coming together, their chance of having a red haired child is 1 in 64.


__________________________________



There’s more to blood types than A, B and O


https://www.science.org.au/curious/people-medicine/rare-blood-types

 

Rare Blood types

You may already know your blood type: whether it’s A, B, AB or O, and whether it’s positive or negative. But those are just the most common categories—what about the rest? What about people with ‘rare’ blood who don’t fit into any of these categories, thanks to uncommon combinations (or absences) of certain antigens?

 

There are hundreds of different antigens across more than 36 blood group systems that may be present on our red blood cells. For example, you may have AB blood in the ABO blood group system, be Rh positive in the Rh system, as well as being K positive in the Kell system, and so on.

 

You have a ‘rare’ blood type if your blood is missing an antigen which is common to most people, or if it has an antigen which most people don’t have. Say your blood lacks an antigen which is present on the red cells of the majority of the population. If you receive a transfusion of ‘ordinary’ blood which has that common antigen, it will be recognised as foreign, triggering an immune response with potentially catastrophic results. An example is the Jk system, where most people have Jka and/or Jkb types, but some people lack a and b and are a rare Jka–b– type.

One of the rarest blood types in the world is Rh_null, sometimes referred to as ‘golden blood'

Conversely, if your blood has a rare antigen and is introduced into the body of a patient without it, it will be recognised as foreign. For example, in the 1990s, researchers at the Australian Red Cross Blood Service discovered something interesting about the blood cells of donor Sarah Culhane—they had an antigen on them that had never been seen before. Researchers named the antigen ‘SARA’. Some of Sarah’s unusual blood was frozen and stored.

Twenty years later, Canadian Blood Services sent the Australian organisation blood from the family of a Canadian baby who had required a massive blood transfusion at birth. They suspected it might be related to the rare SARA antigen. Testing showed that the mother’s blood was SARA negative—with anti-SARA antibodies. They had attacked the baby’s cells, which were SARA positive.

The SARA antigen has now been officially recognised by the International Society for Blood Transfusion. A very rare antigen, only two families in the world are known to have it. Because the same thing that happens in pregnancy or transfusion with incompatible Rh types can occur with SARA, correct typing and matching are very important.

One of the rarest blood types in the world is Rhnull, sometimes referred to as ‘golden blood’. People with this blood type have a complete absence of any of the Rh antigens. It was first discovered in an Aboriginal Australian and is extremely rare, with fewer than 50 individuals known to have Rhnull blood in the 50 years after its discovery. Its rarity means that donations of Rhnull are incredibly scarce and difficult to obtain when an Rhnull individual needs a blood transfusion, relying on the cooperation of a small network of regular Rhnull donors around the world to ensure this blood type is always available when needed.



__________________________________

 

Blood Type Personality: What Does Your Blood Type Personality Say About You?

October 8, 2020

https://www.betterhelp.com/advice/personality/blood-type-personality-what-does-your-blood-say-about-you/


__________________________________

 

Racial Differences in Bioavailable Vitamin D and Response
to Supplementation: A5280 ...... Bone, Vit D, EFV+Truvada & Blacks

2006

 
https://natap.org/2016/CROI/croi_139.htm

 

__________________________________


Blood, race and indigenous peoples in twentieth century extreme physiology

June 13, 2019

https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40656-019-0264-z


__________________________________

Blood Group and Rhesus Factor Pattern among Indigenes of FCT, Abuja, Nigeria

2013

https://www.omicsonline.org/blood-group-and-rhesus-factor-pattern-among-indigenes-of-fct-abuja-nigeria-2161-0711.1000208.php?aid=12430


Abstract

A series of glycoprotein and glycolipids on red blood cell surface constitute blood group antigens. These are the ABO (A, B, AB and O) and Rh blood groups which are the most important blood groups despite the long list of several other blood groups discovered so far. The ABO and Rh blood groups vary worldwide and are not found in equal numbers even among ethnic groups. Therefore, this study was aimed at having information on the distribution of ABO and Rh blood groups among indigenes of FCT, Abuja, Nigeria. A total of 305 individuals were randomly selected among the indigenes of FCT, Abuja, Nigeria (Gwari, Bassa, and Koto). The blood samples were taken by cubital venipuncture and analysed using the agglutination method. 170 (55.7%) were males and 135 (44.3%) were females. In the ABO system, their blood groups were A 66 (21.6%), B 80 (26.2%), AB 15 (4.9%) and O 104 (47.2%). Rh-positive were 292 (95.7%) and Rh-negative were 13 (4.3%). Blood group O and Rh-positive had the highest frequency and blood group AB and Rh-negative had the least frequency. The results obtained were compared with previously published data. Some variations in frequencies were observed. However, apart from blood transfusion practise, it is imperative to have information on the distribution of these blood groups in any population group that comprise tribes and ethnic groups.


__________________________________


Distribution of ABO blood groups and rhesus factorin a Large Scale Study of different cities and ethnicities in Khuzestan province, Iran

2016

https://applications.emro.who.int/imemrf/Egypt_J_Med_Hum_Genet/Egypt_J_Med_Hum_Genet_2016_17_1_105_109.pdf


Abstract

Background:

The demand for blood and blood products has increased due to advancesin medical science, population growth and increased life expectancy. This has increased the need forvarious blood groups in Khuzestan province because of the higher incidence of thalassemia andother blood transfusion dependent disorders in this province.Aim of the study:Due to the presence of various ethnic groups in Khuzestan province, severaltypes of blood components are required. Knowing the distribution of blood groups in differentblood collection centers and tribes is vital for proper object oriented blood collection.Subjects and methods:This was a descriptive cross-sectional study. The study population con-sisted of 29,922 donors visiting Ahvaz transfusion center, affiliated centers and mobile teams (exceptfor teams established in garrisons) during three months in 2014. Forward and reverse bloodgrouping was conducted based on hemagglutination and hemolysis reactions. Data analysis wasdone by Chi-square test using SPSS software.Results:The highest percentage of blood groups in Khuzestan province was related to bloodgroup O (40.21%) with the highest prevalence in Izeh and the lowest in Shadegan. The second mostprevalent group was A for which Ramhormoz and Bandar-e Emam Khomeini had the highestpercentage, and AB blood group had the lowest percentage and was most frequent in Shadegan.Moreover, blood group B was the most prevalent after group O among different ethnicities exceptfor Bakhtiaris.


__________________________________

Clinically Significant Minor Blood Group Antigens amongst North Indian Donor Population

2013

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24489547/

Abstract

Background. Racial differences in blood group antigen distribution are common and may result in striking and interesting findings. These differences in blood group antigen distribution are important due to their influence on the clinical practice of transfusion medicine. Study Design and Methods. This is a prospective study, involving 1000 healthy regular repeat voluntary blood donors associated with the department. The clinically significant minor blood group antigens of these donors were studied. Results. Out of 1000 healthy regular repeat voluntary blood donors, 93% were D positive and 2.8% were K positive. Amongst the Rh antigens, e was the most common (99%), followed by D (93%), C (85.1%), c (62.3%), and E (21.5%). Within the MNS blood group system, antigen frequency was M (88%), N (57.5%), S (57.8%), and s (87.5%). Within the Duffy blood group system, antigen frequency was Fy(a) (87.3%) and Fy(b) (58.3%). Conclusions. This data base will help us to prevent alloimmunisation in young females, pregnant women, and patients who are expected to require repeated transfusions in life by providing them with antigen matched blood. Antigen negative blood can also be made available without delay to already alloimmunized multitransfused patients.

__________________________________


Australia’s ethnic face is changing, and so are our blood types

May 8, 2019

https://theconversation.com/australias-ethnic-face-is-changing-and-so-are-our-blood-types-113454


__________________________________


Blood Groups in Racial Classification

1954

https://science.sciencemag.org/content/119/3100/776


__________________________________


Racial/Ethnic-Specific Reference Intervals for Common Laboratory Tests: A Comparison among Asians, Blacks, Hispanics, and White

2015

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4578165/

__________________________________



How is Blood Type Determined?

October 23, 2014

https://www.mentalfloss.com/article/59644/how-blood-type-determined



Last week’s season finale of The Knick saw the cocaine-addicted Dr. John Thackery try to solve the mystery of blood types before another doctor could do it. I won’t spoil what happened for you here, but the episode did make me wonder: How are blood types determined these days?

First, some basics about your blood. There are 4 to 6 liters of it in the average adult body, and all blood is made of the same essential elements: Red blood cells, which, using a protein called hemoglobin, transport oxygen and remove carbon dioxide; white blood cells, which fight infection; platelets, which help blood clot; and plasma, which contains salts and proteins and is the fluid that transports the other components.

But though all blood is made of essentially the same stuff, there are some differences—which caused problems for patients receiving blood transfusions before 1901, when Austrian Karl Landsteiner discovered human blood groups (this earned him the Nobel Prize in 1930). According to the Nobel Prize website, mixing two different blood types “can lead to blood clumping or agglutination. The clumped red cells can crack and cause toxic reactions.” The problem is the immune system. Most blood contains antigens, which are substances that make the body produce antibodies. Usually antibodies are for things like viruses and bacteria, but in a wrong transfusion the immune system sees the new blood as an intruder that must be destroyed. Which can prove fatal.

Two blood group systems are important for transfusions, and Landsteiner was involved in the discovery of both. In the ABO Grouping System, there are four types of blood: Type A, Type B, Type AB, and Type O, which are determined by the presence or absence of certain antigens on the surface of red blood cells. According to the American Red Cross,

    Group A – has only the A antigen on red cells (and B antibody in the plasma)
    Group B – has only the B antigen on red cells (and A antibody in the plasma)
    Group AB – has both A and B antigens on red cells (but neither A nor B antibody in the plasma)
    Group O – has neither A nor B antigens on red cells (but both A and B antibody are in the plasma)

Immune systems are adapted to individual blood types. If someone from Group B donated blood to someone from Group A, the B antibodies would recognize the B antigen as a threat and blood clumping would occur. But if someone from Group B donated to someone in Group AB there are no B antibodies, so the immune system doesn’t recognize the intruder.

Additionally, there’s the Rh factor blood grouping system. The Rh antigen is either present (+) or absent (-) in the blood. Typically, Rh negative blood goes to patients without the antigen, and Rh positive blood goes to patients who have the antigen—but an Rh positive patient can receive Rh negative blood without any problems.

So there are eight blood groups you can belong to: A Rh+, A Rh-, B Rh+, B Rh-, AB Rh+, AB Rh-, O Rh+, and O Rh -, although doctors usually leave out the Rh and just say + or -. What blood type a person ends up with is determined by genetics.

To figure out a person’s blood type, doctors can use two methods: ABO Typing or back typing. In ABO typing, doctors take blood and mix it with serums containing the antibodies in Type A and B blood. According to the National Institutes of Health,

    If your blood cells stick together when mixed with:

    Anti-A serum, you have type A blood
    Anti-B serum, you have type B blood
    Both anti-A and anti-B serums, you have type AB blood
    If your blood cells do not stick together when anti-A and anti-B are added, you have type O blood.

In back testing, known A and B cells are added to samples. If the blood clumps together only when B cells are added, the donor has type A blood. If the blood clumps together when A cells are added, the donor is Type B. And if the blood clumps when either type of cell is added, the donor has Type O blood. No clumping indicates Type AB.

Rh is determined by mixing in anti-Rh serum. If the blood cells stick together when the serum is added, the person is Rh positive; if not, the person is Rh negative.

Fun fact: Everyone knows that people with O Rh- blood are universal donors, but there are also universal receivers—they have the AB Rh+ blood type. The opposite is true for plasma donors. O plasma contains antibodies for both A and B, so it would cause an immune reaction in any other blood type. AB plasma doesn’t have either antibody, so it’s universal.

__________________________________



Population Differences in von Willebrand Factor Levels Affect the Diagnosis of von Willebrand Disease in African-American Women

2001

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/ajh.1090

Diagnosis of von Willebrand disease (vWD) is based on a panel of laboratory tests thatmeasure the amount and function of von Willebrand factor (vWF). In population studies,vWF is higher in African Americans than Caucasians. Bleeding time, factor VIII activity(FVIII), vWF antigen (vWF:Ag), “vWF activity” ELISA (vWF:Act), ristocetin cofactor (vW-F:RCof),  and  ristocetin-induced  platelet  aggregation  (RIPA)  were  measured  on  123women with menorrhagia and 123 randomly selected control women; 70 cases and 76controls were African American. Among controls, African Americans had significantlyhigher levels of vWF:Ag (mean 120 vs. 102 U/dl,P= 0.017). Among all subjects, AfricanAmericans had higher levels of vWF:Ag (mean 123 vs. 103,P= 0.001), vWF:Act (mean 101vs. 89,P= 0.006), and FVIII (mean 118 vs. 104,P= 0.008). VWF:RCof did not differ betweenraces (93 vs. 94 U/dl). RIPA was reduced in African Americans (P< 0.0001). In both races,women  with  type  O  blood  differed  significantly  from  those  with  other  ABO  types  invWF:Ag, vWF:Act, FVIII, and vWF:RCof. Based on criteria of two or more tests below race-and  ABO-specific  reference  ranges,  6.5%  of  menorrhagia  cases  and  0.8%  of  controlswere classified as having vWD, or its phenocopy. Among Caucasians, no controls and 7cases (15.6%) were classified as affected, and in African Americans, 1 control (1.3%) and1 case (1.4%) were so classified. Racial differences in vWF further complicate the issuessurrounding diagnosis of vWD. The finding of increased vWF:Ag not accompanied byincreased vWF:RCof has implications for understanding the structure-function relation-ships of vWF.



__________________________________

Hematologic differences between African-Americans and whites: the roles of iron deficiency and α-thalassemia on hemoglobin levels and mean corpuscular volume

2005

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1895180/


Abstract

The average results of some laboratory measurements, including the hemoglobin, mean corpuscular volume (MCV), serum transferrin saturation (TS), serum ferritin, and white blood cell count of African-Americans differ from those of whites. Anonymized samples and laboratory data from 1491 African-American and 31 005 white subjects, approximately equally divided between men and women, were analyzed. The hematocrit, hemoglobin, MCV, TS, and white blood cell counts of African-Americans were lower than those of whites; serum ferritin levels were higher. When iron-deficient patients were eliminated from consideration the differences in hematocrit, hemoglobin, and MCV among women were slightly less. The -3.7-kilobase α-thalassemia deletion accounted for about one third of the difference in the hemoglobin levels of African-Americans and whites and neither sickle trait nor elevated creatinine levels had an effect. Among all subjects, 19.8% of African-American women would have been classified as “anemic” compared with 5.3% of whites. Among men, the figures were 17.7% and 7.6%. Without iron-deficient or thalassemic subjects, the difference had narrowed to 6.1% and 2.77% and to 4.29% and 3.6%, respectively. Physicians need to take into account that the same reference standards for hemoglobin, hematocrit, MCV, and TS and the white blood cell count do not apply to all ethnic groups.

__________________________________

Japan and blood types: Does it determine personality?

November 5, 2012

https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-20170787


Are you A, B, O or AB? It is a widespread belief in Japan that character is linked to blood type. What's behind this conventional wisdom?

Blood is one thing that unites the entire human race, but most of us don't think about our blood group much, unless we need a transfusion. In Japan, however, blood type has big implications for life, work and love.

Here, a person's blood type is popularly believed to determine temperament and personality. "What's your blood type?" is often a key question in everything from matchmaking to job applications.

According to popular belief in Japan, type As are sensitive perfectionists and good team players, but over-anxious. Type Os are curious and generous but stubborn. ABs are arty but mysterious and unpredictable, and type Bs are cheerful but eccentric, individualistic and selfish.

About 40% of the Japanese population is type A and 30% are type O, whilst only 20% are type B, with AB accounting for the remaining 10%.


__________________________________

The Curious Japanese Obsession With Blood Types

Aug 19, 2014

Are you hot headed? Cool and calm? Your personality might be determined by the type of red stuff flowing through your veins.

https://blog.gaijinpot.com/blood-type/


__________________________________

Blood purity and scientific independence: blood scienceand postcolonial struggles in Korea, 1926–1975

2019

https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/AED85577C6404CF632D1EE3BAD8D949A/S0269889719000231a.pdf/div-class-title-blood-purity-and-scientific-independence-blood-science-and-postcolonial-struggles-in-korea-1926-1975-div.pdf


__________________________________

ABO blood group and risk of newly diagnosed nonalcoholic fatty liver disease: A case-control study in Han Chinese population

December 4, 2019

https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0225792



__________________________________

Blood Purity: How a Bizarre Obsession Advanced Science

June 2, 2013

Before Nazis, German scientists were propagating theories about blood purity.

https://abcnews.go.com/International/blood-purity-bizarre-obsession-advanced-science/story?id=19296143


__________________________________

The distribution of blood types by country

November 7, 2014

https://blogs.sas.com/content/iml/2014/11/07/distribution-of-blood-types.html


My colleague Robert Allison has a knack for finding fascinating data. Last week he did it again by locating data about how blood types and Rh factors vary among countries.

He produced a series of eight world maps, each showing the prevalence of a blood type (A+, A-, B+, B-, AB+, AB-, O+, and O-) in various countries around the world. As I studied his maps, I noticed that the distribution of blood types in certain ethnic groups (Chinese, Japanese, Indians,...) was different than the distribution in Western Europe and former European colonies.

When dealing with multivariate data, a single visualization is rarely sufficient to answer all the questions that you can ask. Robert's maps answer the question, "What is the spatial distribution of each blood type?" I was curious about a different question: "Within each country, what is the distribution of blood types?" To answer my question, I needed a different visualization of the same multivariate data.


__________________________________

This Is Why Type O Is the Most Common Blood Type

Apr. 24, 2019

https://www.rd.com/article/why-type-o-most-common-blood-type/


You have a blood type

And it’s based on antigens, which are proteins or combinations of sugar called polysaccharides. They sit on the surface of red blood cells and help determine blood types. First, A or B antigens (sugars) create the four blood groups: A, B, AB, and O. The presence of Rh factor (protein) adds a “positive,” while the absence of it adds “negative.” That leads to the eight common blood types: positive, and negative versions of A, B, O, AB. What you may not realize is that there are rare blood types. Specifically, more than 600 antigens make up 200 “minor blood groups,” according to the International Society of Blood Transfusion. Here’s another question: Do you know why blood is red?

Why it matters

Not just any blood will do if you need a transfusion: If a blood type doesn’t match yours or isn’t compatible, then you could get extremely ill. The immune system reaction to incompatible antigens can lead to serious complications, including kidney disease, low blood pressure, clotting, and even death, says Ross Herron, MD, chief medical officer of the Western Division of the American Red Cross. One place where your blood type may not really matter is when it comes to the controversial blood-type diet.

O is the most common

About 45 percent of Americans have type O. Of them, 38 percent have O-positive blood, and just 7 percent have O-negative. The reason why O is so prevalent in the United States? Genetics, says Dr. Herron—it’s based on how populations spread to different parts of the world. “Every ethnicity has every blood group represented, but the different groups are present in different proportions,” he says. For instance, Caucasians have a larger proportion of O positive, he says. African Americans have a higher rate of O and B types.

Although type O comes from a recessive gene—if one parent has A or B blood, the child will be A or B—O is the oldest type, reports the BBC. A and B types only emerged in the last 20,000 years or so, and are still spreading. This underscores the need for a variety of donors, says Dr. Herron: “We need a diverse population of blood donors to make sure we have the right mix when we need it.”

The universal blood type

If you have O-negative blood, your blood is universal. O-negative can be transfused to patients with any blood type. In medical TV shows, you might see someone wheeled into the ER, and the doctor ordering “O-negative blood stat!” However, in real life, it’s starting to play out a bit differently, says Dr. Herron. “That almost always leads to O-negative blood shortages,” he says. Today, if you’re an adult male or a female beyond reproductive age, most ERs will now give you O-positive blood, says Dr. Herron, which will work and helps ease the demand for O-negative.



__________________________________


Analysis of the Blood Type and Group among Undergraduate Physics Studentsof Dilla University, Ethiopia

2014

https://www.longdom.org/open-access/analysis-of-the-blood-type-and-group-among-undergraduate-physics-students-of-dilla-university-ethiopia-2161-1041-4-1000140.pdf


Abstract

The plasma membrane of a mature red blood cell has glycol-proteins and glycol-lipids that determine a person’sblood type. Blood types A, B, AB, and O form the ABO blood group. ABO blood type is determined by the hereditarypresence or absence of antigens A and B on Red Blood Cells. Blood types and transfusion compatibility are amatter of interactions between plasma proteins and erythrocytes. A blood sample was taken from the voluntaryPhysics students of Dilla University. Blood type (groups) varies among each ethnic group, A, B, AB and O bloodgroups were analysis for these ethnic group of Physics department students found in Dilla University, Amhara state,Oromia state, South Nation Nationalities People, Tigray state and Gembella people. The distribution of blood groupO was the highest with percentage frequency of 38.33, 29.44 and 28.88%, followed by blood group A and bloodgroup B, and the least percentage frequency is that of blood group AB with 3.33% among each ethnic groups. Thehighest Rh-blood types were 91.66% Rh-positive blood types followed by 8.34% Rh-negative blood types.Therefore, among each ethnic groups of Ethiopian students, the blood type and groups were varies in all voluntarystudents of Dilla University.

__________________________________




Racial disparities in the use of blood transfusion in major surgery

2014

https://bmchealthservres.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1472-6963-14-121



__________________________________

Broaden pancreas allocation across compatible ABO blood types

2017

https://optn.transplant.hrsa.gov/governance/public-comment/broaden-pancreas-allocation-across-compatible-abo-blood-types/


__________________________________

Blood Type Matters for Brain Health

January 1, 2015

People with AB blood type are at higher risk for age-related cognitive decline

https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/blood-type-matters-for-brain-health/


__________________________________

The Dangers of Being Unique: What Makes Blood Rare?

January 31, 2019

https://www.aruplab.com/news/01/31/2019/What-makes-blood-rare


__________________________________

The Significant High Prevalence of Blood Group ‘O’ in Yam Tribe of Najran City, the South Province of KSA

2018

https://juniperpublishers.com/oabtj/pdf/OABTJ.MS.ID.555579.pdf


__________________________________

Blood mystery solved: Two new blood types identified

February 23, 2012

https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2012/02/120223183819.htm


__________________________________


The Connection Between Blood Type and Heart Health

February 19, 2018

https://www.pennmedicine.org/news/news-blog/2018/february/the-connection-between-blood-type-and-heart-health


__________________________________

Abstract WMP54: ABO Blood Type and Incident Stroke in the REasons for Geographic and Racial Differences in Stroke (REGARDS) Study

April 7, 2018

https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/10.1161/str.44.suppl_1.AWMP54


__________________________________

 

 
Racial-Ethnic Disparities in Stroke Care: The American Experience

A Statement for Healthcare Professionals From the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association

2011

https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/10.1161/str.0b013e3182213e24

 

__________________________________

 

 Sex and Race Differences in the Association of Incident Ischemic Stroke With Risk Factors

2018

https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamaneurology/fullarticle/2716974

 

__________________________________

Racial Differences in the Prevalence of Chronic Kidney Disease among Participants in the Reasons for Geographic and Racial Differences in Stroke (REGARDS) Cohort Study

June 2006

https://jasn.asnjournals.org/content/17/6/1710


__________________________________

Can Your Blood Type Affect Your Memory?

September 10, 2014

https://www.aan.com/PressRoom/Home/PressRelease/1306


__________________________________

Assessment of Racial Disparities in Biomarkers for Alzheimer Disease

January 7, 2019

https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamaneurology/fullarticle/2719700

__________________________________

Racial differences in genome-wide methylation profiling and gene expression in breast tissues from healthy women

October 19, 2015

https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/15592294.2015.1121362

 

__________________________________


Differences in Vascular Nitric Oxide and Endothelium-Derived Hyperpolarizing Factor Bioavailability in Blacks and Whites

March 2014

https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/full/10.1161/ATVBAHA.113.303136


Abstract

Objective—

Abnormalities in nitric oxide (NO) bioavailability have been reported in blacks. Whether there are differences in endothelium-derived hyperpolarizing factor (EDHF) in addition to NO between blacks and whites and how these affect physiological vasodilation remain unknown. We hypothesized that the bioavailability of vascular NO and EDHF, at rest and with pharmacological and physiological vasodilation, varies between whites and blacks.

Approach and Results—

In 74 white and 86 black subjects without known cardiovascular disease risk factors, forearm blood flow was measured using plethysmography at rest and during inhibition of NO with NG-monomethyl-l-arginine and of K+Ca channels (EDHF) with tetraethylammonium. The reduction in resting forearm blood flow was greater with NG-monomethyl-l-arginine (P=0.019) and similar with tetraethylammonium in whites compared with blacks. Vasodilation with bradykinin, acetylcholine, and sodium nitroprusside was lower in blacks compared with whites (all P<0.0001). Inhibition with NG-monomethyl-l-arginine was greater in whites compared with blacks with bradykinin, acetylcholine, and exercise. Inhibition with tetraethylammonium was lower in blacks with bradykinin, but greater during exercise and with acetylcholine.

Conclusions—

The contribution to both resting and stimulus-mediated vasodilator tone of NO is greater in whites compared with blacks. EDHF partly compensates for the reduced NO release in exercise and acetylcholine-mediated vasodilation in blacks. Preserved EDHF but reduced NO bioavailability and sensitivity characterizes the vasculature in healthy blacks.



__________________________________

Racial Differences in Nitric Oxide-Dependent Vasorelaxation

2008

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2459254/


__________________________________

Effects of race and hypertension on flow-mediated and nitroglycerin-mediated dilation of the brachial artery

2001

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11751716/

 

__________________________________

Asymmetric dimethylarginine and reduced nitric oxide bioavailability in young Black African men

2007

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17261643/


__________________________________

Vascular dysfunction and reduced circulating endothelial progenitor cells in young healthy UK South Asian men

2007

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17255539/



__________________________________



Comparison of metabolic vasodilation in response to exercise and ischemia and endothelium-dependent flow-mediated dilation in African-American versus non-African-American patients with chronic heart failure

2006

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16490438/


__________________________________

Racial/Ethnic Differences in Cardiovascular Symptoms in Four Major Racial/Ethnic Groups of Midlife Women: A Secondary Analysis

2015

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25826460/


__________________________________

Relationship of glucose intolerance to coronary risk in Afro-Caribbeans compared with Europeans

1994

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7988778/

__________________________________

Black/white differences in risk factors for arteriographically documented coronary artery disease in men

1988

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3400600/

 

 __________________________________

 

 Racial Differences in the Effect of Granulocyte Macrophage Colony‐Stimulating Factor on Improved Walking Distance in Peripheral Artery Disease: The PROPEL Randomized Clinical Trial

Jan 2019

https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/full/10.1161/JAHA.118.011001

 

__________________________________


Racial Differences in Incident Heart Failure among Young Adults

2009

https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/nejmoa0807265

__________________________________


Racial disparities in cardiovascular disease risk: mechanisms of vascular dysfunction

2019

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31397168/

__________________________________

The relationship between metabolic risk factors and incident cardiovascular disease in Europeans, South Asians, and African Caribbeans: SABRE (Southall and Brent Revisited) -- a prospective population-based study

2013

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23500273/


__________________________________



Gender-specific brachial artery blood pressure-independent relationship between pulse wave velocity and left ventricular mass index in a group of African ancestry

2008

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18622241/

 

__________________________________

A comparison of left ventricular abnormalities associated with glucose intolerance in African Caribbeans and Europeans in the UK

2001

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11359744/

 

__________________________________


Hyperglycemia has a greater impact on left ventricle function in South Asians than in Europeans

2014

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24241789/

 

__________________________________

Left-ventricular structure in the Southall And Brent REvisited (SABRE) study: explaining ethnic differences

2013

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23478098/

 

__________________________________


Premature Cardiac Aging in South Asian Compared to Afro-Caribbean Subjects in a Community-Based Screening Study

2016

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27930355/

 

__________________________________


Systolic heart failure in South Asians

2011

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22093534/


__________________________________


Effects of white European, African Caribbean and South Asian ethnicity on homocysteine levels in patients with systolic heart failure

2007

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17719103/


__________________________________

Ethnic differences in macrovascular and microvascular function in systolic heart failure

2011

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21914813/

 

__________________________________


Glycemic status underlies increased arterial stiffness and impaired endothelial function in migrant South Asian stroke survivors compared to European Caucasians: pathophysiological insights from the West Birmingham Stroke Project

2009

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19520993/

 

__________________________________

Increased central arterial stiffness and altered cerebrovascular haemodynamic properties in South Asian older adults

2016

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26178590/

 

__________________________________

Impact of mean arterial blood pressure on higher arterial stiffness indices in South Asians compared to white Europeans

2007

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18551019/


Conclusion:

Healthy South Asians have increased systemic arterial stiffness measured by stiffness index compared with white Europeans. There was an adverse and disproportional impact of age and mean arterial pressure on the vascular system in South Asians. Increased indices of arterial stiffness may explain their increased susceptibility to coronary heart disease.


__________________________________

Associations Between Depression, Arterial Stiffness, and Metabolic Syndrome Among Adults in the UK Biobank Population Study: A Mediation Analysis

June 2020

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31995135/

 

__________________________________

Ethnic differences in vascular stiffness and relations to hypertensive target organ damage

2004

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15311101/

 

__________________________________

Comparison of plasma lipid and lipoprotein profiles in hypertensive black versus white men. Department of Veterans Affairs Cooperative Study Group on Antihypertensive Agents

1996

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8960581/

 

__________________________________


A review on ethnic differences in plasma triglycerides and high-density-lipoprotein cholesterol: is the lipid pattern the key factor for the low coronary heart disease rate in people of African origin?

1998

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9517868/



Abstract

Black people in the UK, in the Caribbean, and to a lesser extent in the USA, experience coronary heart disease events at different rates than white people. Despite having higher prevalence of hypertension, cigarette smoking and diabetes, black males have significantly lower coronary heart disease rates than white males, whereas no significant differences have been detected in females. The only known risk factor differences that could account for the difference in CHD rates are higher HDL cholesterol and lower triglycerides that are seen in blacks compared with whites. Obesity and, in particular abdominal obesity, seems to determine TG and HDL cholesterol levels: black males are less centrally obese than whites, while total adiposity and central distribution of fat is more predominant in black females compared with white females. We propose that the less degree of abdominal adiposity observed in black males is related with an increased anti-lipolytic effect of insulin, which could account for low triglycerides and high HDL cholesterol levels, and consequently explain the higher protection from coronary heart disease experienced by black males compared with whites and black females.




__________________________________



Defective nitric oxide production and functional renal reserve in patients with type 2 diabetes who have microalbuminuria of African and Asian compared with white origin

2001

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11562411/

Abstract

Diabetic nephropathy is a leading cause of end-stage renal failure. Its incidence is higher and is increasing in persons of Indo-Asian and African-Caribbean (African-Asian) compared with those of white origin. Nitric oxide deficiency is associated with progressive renal disease. It was hypothesized that differences in the capacity to increase glomerular filtration (functional renal reserve) would exist between these racial groups in relation to nitric oxide availability. Patients with type 2 diabetes of African-Asian (n = 9) and white (n = 9) origin with microalbuminuria were studied under euglycemic conditions. Glomerular filtration, renal plasma flow, and clearance of the stable metabolites of nitric oxide, nitrite, and nitrate were measured before and after a renal vasodilatory stimulus of a mixed amino acid intravenous infusion. There were no significant differences in age, duration of diabetes, and baseline glomerular filtration (57.1 [14.1] versus 55.8 [10.1] yr; P = 0.82, 14.5 [10.2] versus 9.1 [7.0] yr; P = 0.19 and 125.9 [30.9] versus 127.2 [44.6] ml/min per 1.73 m(2); P = 0.94) between the African-Asian and white groups. Functional renal reserve, change in renal plasma flow, and percentage change in nitrate and nitrite clearance was significantly higher in the white compared with the African-Asian group (21.9 [45.7] versus -2.5 [28.2] ml/min per 1.73 m(2); P = 0.043, 155.8 [205.9] versus -90.1 [146.0]; P = 0.03 ml/min per 1.73 m(2) and 26.7 [85.1] versus -44.7 [16.9] %; P = 0.013, respectively). The differences in functional reserve were not confounded after adjustment for diabetes duration (P = 0.034). The data suggest that these patients with type 2 diabetes of African and Asian origin lose functional renal reserve earlier in the evolution of nephropathy than whites. The differences appear to be due to defective nitric oxide production or bioavailability and might explain some of the propensity to develop end-stage renal disease.


__________________________________

 

 Medication adherence and racial differences in diabetes in the USA: an update

2015

https://www.openaccessjournals.com/articles/medication-adherence-and-racial-differences-in-diabetes-in-the-usa-an-update.pdf

 

__________________________________

Are There Clinical Implications of Racial Differences in HbA_1c? A Difference, to Be a Difference, Must Make a Difference

2016

https://care.diabetesjournals.org/content/39/8/1462

Abstract

Studies that have compared HbA_1c levels by race have consistently demonstrated higher HbA_1c levels in African Americans than in whites. These racial differences in HbA_1c have not been explained by measured differences in glycemia, sociodemographic factors, clinical factors, access to care, or quality of care. Recently, a number of nonglycemic factors and several genetic polymorphisms that operate through nonglycemic mechanisms have been associated with HbA_1c. Their distributions across racial groups and their impact on hemoglobin glycation need to be systematically explored. Thus, on the basis of evidence for racial differences in HbA_1c, current clinical guidelines from the American Diabetes Association state: “It is important to take…race/ethnicity…into consideration when using the A1C to diagnose diabetes.” However, it is not clear from the guidelines how this recommendation might be actualized. So, the critical question is not whether racial differences in HbA_1c exist between African Americans and whites; the important question is whether the observed differences in HbA_1c level are clinically meaningful. Therefore, given the current controversy, we provide a Point-Counterpoint debate on this issue. In the preceding point narrative, Dr. Herman provides his argument that the failure to acknowledge that HbA_1c might be a biased measure of average glycemia and an unwillingness to rigorously investigate this hypothesis will slow scientific progress and has the potential to do great harm. In the counterpoint narrative below, Dr. Selvin argues that there is no compelling evidence for racial differences in the validity of HbA_1c as a measure of hyperglycemia and that race is a poor surrogate for differences in underlying causes of disease risk.

__________________________________

Skeletal muscle area and density are associated with lipid and lipoprotein cholesterol levels: The Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis

January 13, 2020

https://www.lipidjournal.com/article/S1933-2874(20)30002-7/fulltext


__________________________________

 

Associations of Sedentary Behavior and Abdominal Muscle Density: The Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis

https://journals.humankinetics.com/view/journals/jpah/15/11/article-p827.xml

 

__________________________________

 

 Racial/Ethnic Differences in Sleep Disturbances: The Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis (MESA)

June 01, 2015

https://academic.oup.com/sleep/article/38/6/877/2416970

 

__________________________________

 

Racial/Ethnic Differences in Sleep Disturbances: The Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis (MESA)

2015

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4434554/

Objectives:

There is limited research on racial/ethnic variation in sleep disturbances. This study aimed to quantify the distributions of objectively measured sleep disordered breathing (SDB), short sleep duration, poor sleep quality, and self-reported sleep disturbances (e.g., insomnia) across racial/ethnic groups.

Measurements and Results:

Information from polysomnography-measured SDB, actigraphy-measured sleep duration and quality, and self-reported daytime sleepiness were obtained between 2010 and 2013. Overall, 15.0% of individuals had severe SDB (apnea-hypopnea index [AHI] ≥ 30); 30.9% short sleep duration (< 6 h); 6.5% poor sleep quality (sleep efficiency < 85%); and 13.9% had daytime sleepiness. Compared with Whites, Blacks had higher odds of sleep apnea syndrome (AHI ≥ 5 plus sleepiness) (sex-, age-, and study site-adjusted odds ratio [OR] = 1.78, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.20, 2.63), short sleep (OR = 4.95, 95% CI: 3.56, 6.90), poor sleep quality (OR = 1.57, 95% CI: 1.00, 2.48), and daytime sleepiness (OR = 1.89, 95% CI: 1.38, 2.60). Hispanics and Chinese had higher odds of SDB and short sleep than Whites. Among non-obese individuals, Chinese had the highest odds of SDB compared to Whites. Only 7.4% to 16.2% of individuals with an AHI ≥ 15 reported a prior diagnosis of sleep apnea.

Conclusions:

Sleep disturbances are prevalent among middle-aged and older adults, and vary by race/ethnicity, sex, and obesity status. The high prevalence of sleep disturbances and undiagnosed sleep apnea among racial/ethnic minorities may contribute to health disparities.


__________________________________

 

 Comparative study on cerebral atherosclerosis between an African (Nigerian) and American population groups (caucasian and negroes)

1971

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/5129675/

 

__________________________________

Habitual sleep as a contributor to racial differences in cardiometabolic risk

2017

https://www.pnas.org/content/114/33/8889


Significance

Large differences in cardiovascular disease and diabetes prevalence exist between African American and European American adults. The US federal government has committed to reducing racial disparities in health; however, the precise mechanisms are not well understood. Sleep is one potential behavioral explanation for current racial differences in cardiometabolic conditions. We show that more than one-half of racial differences in cardiometabolic risk can be explained by sleep patterns—namely, less total sleep and lower sleep efficiency among African American than European American adults. Sleep is a malleable health behavior that is linked with characteristics of the social and physical environment and could be an effective target in national efforts to reduce racial health disparities.


__________________________________

 


Sleep in America: Role of Racial/Ethnic Differences

2013

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3644542/


__________________________________

 

Comparability of Resting Energy Expenditure in Nigerians and U.S. Blacks

2012

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1038/oby.2000.42

__________________________________

Op-Ed: African Americans don’t sleep as well as whites, an inequality stretching back to slavery

2017

https://www.latimes.com/opinion/op-ed/la-oe-reiss-race-sleep-gap-20170423-story.html

 

__________________________________

 

Higher brachial-ankle pulse wave velocity is associated with more advanced carotid atherosclerosis in end-stage renal disease

2005

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15969249/

 

__________________________________

 

Carotid artery intima-media thickness in college students: race/ethnicity matters

2011

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21679950/

 

__________________________________



Plasma high-density lipoprotein cholesterol comparisons in black and white populations. The Lipid Research Clinics Program Prevalence Study

1980

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7418150/


__________________________________


Plasma high-density lipoprotein cholesterol: association with measurements of body mass. The Lipid Research Clinics Program Prevalence Study

1980

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7418145/


__________________________________

Plasma high-density lipoprotein cholesterol comparisons in black and white populations. The Lipid Research Clinics Program Prevalence Study

1980

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7418150/

 

__________________________________

Alcohol intake, cigarette smoking and plasma lipids and lipoproteins in 12--19-year-old children. The Collaborative Lipid Research Clinics Prevalence Study

1981

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7020984/

 

__________________________________


The conjoint trait of low high-density lipoprotein cholesterol and high triglycerides in adolescent black and white males

1998

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9591740/

 

__________________________________

Managing dyslipidemia in Turkey: suggested guidelines for a population characterized by low levels of high density lipoprotein cholesterol

2002

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12460830/



__________________________________

Increased arterial stiffness in Europeans and African Caribbeans with type 2 diabetes cannot be accounted for by conventional cardiovascular risk factors

2006

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16942929/


__________________________________


Adverse effect of diabetes and hyperglycaemia on arterial stiffness in Europeans, South Asians, and African Caribbeans in the SABRE study

2016

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26628109/

 

__________________________________

Resting and ambulatory blood pressure differences in Afro-Caribbeans and Europeans

1993

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8319998/


__________________________________

Effects of race and sex on cerebral hemodynamics, oxygen delivery and blood flow distribution in response to high altitude

2016

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4977556/


__________________________________


Race‐specific differences in the phase coherence between blood flow and oxygenation: A simultaneous NIRS, white light spectroscopy and LDF study

January 16, 2020

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/jbio.201960131

 

__________________________________


Comparison of Maximal Oxygen Consumption Between Black and White Prepubertal and Pubertal Children

2004

https://www.nature.com/articles/pr2004578.pdf?origin=ppub


__________________________________


Racial Differences in Ocular Oxidative Metabolism Implications for Ocular Disease

 

2011

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5562541/


Conclusions

Racial differences in oxygen levels in the human eye reflect an important difference in oxidative metabolism in the cornea and lens and may reflect differences in systemic physiologic function. Increased oxygen or oxygen metabolites may increase oxidative stress, cell damage, intraocular pressure, and the risk of developing glaucoma. Oxygen use by the cornea decreases with age.

 

Glaucoma is one of the leading causes of blindness and visual disability worldwide, affecting more than 60 million individuals.¹ The prevalence of glaucoma is disproportionately higher in African populations.² In the United States, the Baltimore Eye Survey³ found that the prevalence of glaucoma in individuals of African descent was 6 times more than the levels in the Caucasian population in some age groups. Primary open-angle glaucoma is the leading cause of blindness in the African American population, where it is 16 times more likely to result in blindness than in Caucasian Americans.^4,5 Glaucoma is also diagnosed approximately 10 years earlier and shows more rapid progression in the African American compared with the Caucasian population.⁶ Ocular hypertension, the most important risk factor for the development of primary open-angle glaucoma, occurs 12 years earlier in this population, with a higher percentage of African Americans compared with Caucasians progressing to the development of glaucoma.⁶ Population-based studies outside the United States found similar results. The Barbados Eye Study showed that 1 in 11 Afro-Caribbeans older than 50 years and 1 in 6 older than 70 had open-angle glaucoma.⁷ On the West Indian island of St Lucia, the homogeneous Afro-Caribbean population has a prevalence of glaucoma significantly greater than that of the Caucasian populations in other studies.⁸ Investigations in Tanzania and South Africa confirmed the high prevalence of glaucoma in individuals of African descent...

__________________________________



Obesity Is Associated With a Lower Resting Oxygen Saturation in the Ambulatory Elderly: Results From the Cardiovascular Health Study

May 2013

http://rc.rcjournal.com/content/respcare/58/5/831.full.pdf


__________________________________

 

 Are Genetic Factors Involved in Racial and Ethnic Differences in Late-Life Health?

1997

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK109845/

 

__________________________________

Children’s Environmental Health Disparities: Black and African American Children and Asthma

https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2014-05/documents/hd_aa_asthma.pdf


Pollution in the environment may harm children more than adults. This is because children’s bodies are still growing. Also, they eat more, drink more, and breathe more in proportion to their body size than adults. And children’s normal behavior can expose them more to pollution.  This means that exposure to a given amount of pollution results in a larger quantity of the pollutant in children’s bodies compared to adults. Children of racial and ethnic minorities and poor children may be exposed to more pollution. Thus, they may face the biggest health risks from pollution. This fact sheet describes Black and African Ameri-can children’s environmental health risks related to asthma. It also tells you how you can take actions to protect all children. The burdens of asthma fall more heavily on Black children. In 2001-2005, Black  children, regardless of family income, reported higher rates of asthma. Thirteen percent of Black children had asthma. This compares to 8% of White, 8% of Hispanic, and 12% of American Indians and Alas-kan Natives children. Since 1980, the difference in asthma rates between Black and White children has become larger. Black children are twice as likely to be hospitalized for asthma and are four times as likely to die from asthma as White children.


__________________________________

Nicotine Metabolism and Intake in Black and White Smokers

1998

https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/187710


__________________________________


Racial Differences in Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphisms and Messenger RNA Inducibility of the Human CYP1AJ Gene

1993

https://cebp.aacrjournals.org/content/cebp/2/1/53.full.pdf


__________________________________

 

 What’s normal about FEV1 and how much does ethnicity matter?

May 12, 2014

https://www.pftforum.com/blog/whats-normal-about-fev1-and-how-much-does-ethnicity-matter/


What I saw was a great deal of overlap between ethnicities and a great deal of variance within ethnicities.

Ethnicity may be important but the more closely you look at ethnicity the less apparent it becomes as to what it actually means. The primary problem with ethnicity and reference equations revolves around the use of standing height as a metric for lung volume.

Ideally, we would like to know what an individual’s lung function “should” be if they were in perfect health. An individual’s “ideal” FEV1 will depend on lung volume and airway caliber, neither of which can be determined with any precision from simple external measurements. There are a number of proportionalities however, between different parts of the human anatomy that are fairly constant across a broad range of human heights and the volume of the thorax is one of these. This relationship was first noted by John Hutchinson over 150 years ago and has been used ever since. The proportionality is not exact, of course, since there is approximately a 30% range in FEV1 across all ethnicities (at least based on these reference equations there is).

Given the way humans have settled over the earth throughout history, it is not surprising that there would be clustering in genes, diet and environment that would cause local populations to have similar relationships between height and FEV1 (and the other lung function values). Historically this has been taken by researchers as a genetic issue, most particularly the distinction between whites and blacks. I (and many others) strongly suspect that diet and environment have as much, if not much greater, effect. Since not only our genes but both diet and environment play a large role in the development and maturity of the human body as well I guess we should be amazed that the range is only 30%.

But 30% is a pretty broad range and can make the difference between calling an FEV1 either normal or abnormal for a very large number of people. Although we categorize these differences under the heading of “ethnicity” what this really means is that there are factors other than height that predict lung volume and airway caliber and we don’t know what they are.

 

__________________________________

 
A review of the racial differences in the lung function of normal Caucasian, Chinese and Indian subjects

1991

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1955009/

 

__________________________________


Ethnic and Racial Differences in the Smoking-Related Risk of Lung Cancer

2006

https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa033250

Conclusions

Among cigarette smokers, African Americans and Native Hawaiians are more susceptible to lung cancer than whites, Japanese Americans, and Latinos.


__________________________________

Glutathione S-transferase M1 genotype affects aminobiphenyl-hemoglobin adduct levels in white, black and Asian smokers and nonsmokers

1995

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8634658/

 

__________________________________


The biological secrets that make Sherpas superhuman mountaineers

2015

https://www.cnn.com/2015/11/11/health/sherpas-superhuman-mountaineers/index.html

 

__________________________________

Racial Differences in Cardiorespiratory Fitness between Blacks and Whites: A Meta-Analysis

2016

https://thescholarship.ecu.edu/handle/10342/5327

 

__________________________________


How Oxygen Affects Our Bodies in a Swim Race

The Art of Breathing Part I – Swim Race

https://theraceclub.com/aqua_note/how-oxygen-affects-our-bodies-in-a-swim-race/


__________________________________

People of color exposed to more pollution from cars, trucks, power plants during 10-year period

2017

https://www.washington.edu/news/2017/09/14/people-of-color-exposed-to-more-pollution-from-cars-trucks-power-plants-during-10-year-period/

__________________________________

Ethnic differences in arterial responses and inflammatory markers in Afro-Caribbean and Caucasian subjects

2005

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16123316/


__________________________________


High lipoprotein(a) levels and small apolipoprotein(a) sizes are associated with endothelial dysfunction in a multiethnic cohort

2004

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15145108/


__________________________________

Racial difference in endothelial function: role of the infective burden

2007

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16712854/

 

__________________________________


Abnormalities of vascular endothelial function may contribute to increased coronary heart disease risk in UK Indian Asians

1999

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10212168/


__________________________________


Relation of endothelial nitric oxide synthase gene to plasma nitric oxide level, endothelial function, and blood pressure in African Americans

2004

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15233974/


__________________________________


Impaired endothelial function in healthy African-American adolescents compared with Caucasians

2007

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17382119/


__________________________________


Effects of black race on forearm resistance vessel function

2002

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12154113/

__________________________________

Heart hormones that affect development of diabetes, hypertension differ in African Americans and whites

November 13, 2019

https://www.uab.edu/news/health/item/10917-heart-hormones-that-affect-development-of-diabetes-hypertension-differ-in-african-americans-and-whites


__________________________________

Determinants of racial/ethnic differences in blood pressure management among hypertensive patients

2005

https://bmccardiovascdisord.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1471-2261-5-16

 

__________________________________

Hypertension in the African American population: A succinct look at its epidemiology, pathogenesis, and therapy

2015

https://www.revistanefrologia.com/en-hypertension-in-african-american-population-articulo-S201325141500005X


__________________________________


Is Race a Risk Factor for Pulmonary Hypertension?

2018

https://phassociation.org/is-race-a-risk-factor-for-pulmonary-hypertension/


__________________________________


Racial Disparities in Hypertension Prevalence and Management: A Crisis Control?

Apr 06, 2020

https://www.acc.org/latest-in-cardiology/articles/2020/04/06/08/53/racial-disparities-in-hypertension-prevalence-and-management


__________________________________

Racial/ethnic differences in prehypertension in American adults: Population and relative attributable risks of abdominal obesity

September 9, 2004

https://www.nature.com/articles/1001771

 

__________________________________


Racial Differences Among Children With Primary Hypertension

November 2010

https://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/126/5/931


__________________________________


Can cervical spine instability cause heart palpitations and blood pressure problems?

https://www.caringmedical.com/prolotherapy-news/hrv/

 

__________________________________


Neck Posture Clusters and Their Association With Biopsychosocial Factors and Neck Pain in Australian Adolescents

October 1, 2016

https://academic.oup.com/ptj/article/96/10/1576/2870247

_____________________________________

_____________________________________

__________________________________

__________________________________

__________________________________


Section 15: Body Mass Index (BMI) & Genetics

__________________________________

__________________________________

__________________________________

_____________________________________

_____________________________________

Racial and ethnic differences in secular trends for childhood BMI, weight, and height

2006

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16571857/


__________________________________

 

 Asians are different from Caucasians and from each other in their body mass index/body fat per cent relationship

2002

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12164465/

 

__________________________________

 

Association of BMI and cardiovascular risk stratification in the elderly African-American females

2011

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21183933/


__________________________________


Differences in Body Composition in Older People from Two Regions of Mexico: Implications for Diagnoses of Sarcopenia and Sarcopenic Obesity

2018

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30105245/

 

__________________________________

 

Estimates of body composition with dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry in adults

2009

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19812179/

 

__________________________________

 

Estimation of body fatness by air displacement plethysmography in African American and white children

2001


https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11568289/

 

__________________________________


Percentage of body fat cutoffs by sex, age, and race-ethnicity in the US adult population from NHANES 1999-2004

2012

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22301924/


__________________________________


The effect of sex, age and race on estimating percentage body fat from body mass index: The Heritage Family Study

2002

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12037649/


__________________________________


Racial/ethnic differences in body fatness among children and adolescents

2008

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18309298/

Results: At equivalent levels of BMI-for-age, black children had less (mean, 3%) body fatness than white children, and Asian girls had slightly higher (1%) levels of %body fat than white girls. These differences, however, varied by BMI-for-age, with the excess body fatness of Asians evident only among relatively thin children. The ability of overweight to identify girls with excess body fatness also varied by race/ethnicity. Of the girls with excess body fatness, 89% (24/27) of black girls, but only 50% (8/16) of Asian girls, were overweight (P=0.03). Furthermore, the proportion of overweight girls who had excess body fatness varied from 62% (8/13) among Asians to 100% (13/13) among whites.


__________________________________


Relationship of visceral adiposity to cardiovascular disease risk factors in black and white teens

2007

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17426339/


__________________________________


Asians are different from Caucasians and from each other in their body mass index/body fat percent relationship

2002

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12164465/


__________________________________


Why are there race/ethnic differences in adult body mass index-adiposity relationships? A quantitative critical review

2015

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26663309/


__________________________________


Prevalence of overweight in a triethnic pediatric population of San Antonio, Texas

2001

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11319640/


__________________________________


Ethnic differences in the ability of triglyceride levels to identify insulin resistance

2008

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17254586/


__________________________________

 

Black African men with early type 2 diabetes have similar muscle, liver and adipose tissue insulin sensitivity to white European men despite lower visceral fat

2019

https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00125-019-4820-6

__________________________________

Ethnic Differences in the Role of Adipocytokines Linking Abdominal Adiposity and Insulin Sensitivity Among Asians

November 2015

https://academic.oup.com/jcem/article/100/11/4249/2836158

Results:

Principle component (PC) analysis on the adipocytokines identified three PCs, which explained 49.5% of the total variance. Adiponectin loaded negatively, and leptin and FGF21 loaded positively onto PC1. Visfatin, resistin, and apelin all loaded positively onto PC2. IL-6 loaded positively and RBP-4 negatively onto PC3. Only PC1 was negatively associated with ISI in all ethnic groups. In the path analysis, SAT and VAT were negatively associated with ISI in Chinese and Malays without significant mediatory role of PC1. In South Asians, the relationship between VAT and ISI was mediated partly through PC1, whereas the relationship between SAT and ISI was mediated mainly through PC1.

Conclusions:

The relationships between abdominal obesity, adipocytokines and insulin sensitivity differ between ethnic groups. Adiponectin, leptin, and FGF21 play a mediating role in the relationship between abdominal adiposity and insulin resistance in South Asians, but not in Malays or Chinese.

 

__________________________________


Body adiposity index as a risk factor for the metabolic syndrome in postmenopausal Caucasian, African American, and Filipina women

2014

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25470644/


__________________________________


Fat and lean BMI reference curves in children and adolescents and their utility in identifying excess adiposity compared with BMI and percentage body fat

2013

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23697708/

Conclusions: Relative to FMI, the prevalence of excess adiposity is overestimated by BMI in blacks and underestimated by %BF in individuals with high LBM. The use of FMI and LBMI improves on the use of %BF and BMI by allowing for the independent assessment of FM and LBM.


__________________________________


Ethnic group differences in waist circumference percentiles among U.S. children and adolescents: estimates from the 1999-2008 National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys

2011

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21466378/

 

__________________________________

National estimates of the timing of sexual maturation and racial differences among US children

2002

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12415029/

 

__________________________________

High adiposity and high body mass index-for-age in US children and adolescents overall and by race-ethnic group

2010

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20164313/


__________________________________

Adiposity is not equal in a multi-race/ethnic adolescent population: NHANES 1999-2004

2011

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21436795/


__________________________________


Serum total homocysteine concentration determinants in non-Hispanic White, non-Hispanic Black, and Mexican-American populations of the United States

2004

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15724765/


__________________________________


Differences in body composition between Singapore Chinese, Beijing Chinese and Dutch children

2003

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12627175/

 

__________________________________

Singaporean Chinese adolescents have more subcutaneous adipose tissue than Dutch Caucasians of the same age and body mass index

2003

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14505987/

 

__________________________________

Body size, body composition and fat distribution: comparative analysis of European, Maori, Pacific Island and Asian Indian adults

2009

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19203416/


__________________________________



Stature prediction equations for elderly non-Hispanic white, non-Hispanic black, and Mexican-American persons developed from NHANES III data

1998

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12515412/



__________________________________

 

Stature estimation using odontometry and skull anthropometry

2008

https://www.ijdr.in/article.asp?issn=0970-9290;year=2008;volume=19;issue=2;spage=150;epage=154;aulast=Kalia


__________________________________



Metric Methods for the Biological Profile in Forensic Anthropology: Sex, Ancestry, and Stature

2016

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6474557/

 

__________________________________

 

 Average human height by country

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Average_human_height_by_country

 

__________________________________

 

 Average Heights of Men Around the World

https://www.medicinenet.com/height_men/article.htm

 

__________________________________

Racial differences in the sums of skinfolds and percentage of body fat estimated from impedance in black and white girls, 9 to 19 years of age: the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute Growth and Health Study

2001

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11346671/

 

__________________________________

Estimation of body fatness by air displacement plethysmography in African American and white children

2001

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11568289/


__________________________________


Racial and ethnic differences in weight management behavior by weight perception status


2010


https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20828097/


__________________________________


Race-ethnic differences in the association of genetic loci with HbA1c levels and mortality in U.S. adults: the third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES III)

2012

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22540250/

 
__________________________________

 

 Why are there race/ethnic differences in adult body mass index–adiposity relationships? A quantitative critical review

2015

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4968570/

In the current report, we derive US nationally representative %fat prediction equations for adult NH white, NH black and Mexican American subjects using the dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) data from NHANES (Supplementary Table 3). An example of predicted values for %fat is presented in Fig. 1 for representative subjects with an age of 30 years and a BMI of 25 kg m−2. We use a BMI of 25 kg m−2 throughout this report in examples as a useful threshold value for ‘overweight’ that is close to recent past and current US national averages (37). Across both men and women in a large carefully controlled study, NH blacks have the lowest %fat, followed next by NH whites, while Mexican Americans have the greatest %fat; in other words, we find the %fat sequence: NH blacks < NH whites < Mexican Americans. These findings, consistent with earlier reports (38,39), show young adults of the same BMI but differing in race and ethnic group do have significantly different levels of adiposity. The magnitude of these predicted group differences is relatively small, maximally a mean of about 3% percent fat units.

While the findings in this example are consistent with the prevailing literature (38,39), a much more complex set of anatomic relationships is present between these three race and ethnic groups. To begin with, our %fat prediction models are based on cross-sectional data and the evaluated groups were exposed to very different environments up until the time they were studied as part of NHANES. One measure that reflects these potential exposure differences is stature, as adult height is strongly influenced by developmental diet and health status (40,41). As shown in the left-hand panels of Fig. 2, in some cases, there are large stature differences between the three race and ethnic groups, and these differences vary across the adult lifespan. In addition to underlying genetic mechanisms, these height differences likely reflect distinct patterns of nutritional, economic and social exposures to the populations under study.

If these population differences in stature are indeed because of potentially differential environmental exposures, the question arises if the aforementioned between-group differences in adiposity among young adults are stable across the adult lifespan. Using the same BMI (25 kg m−2) across the three race/ethnic groups, predicted adiposity levels differ markedly within and between groups over the evaluated age-span, as shown in the right-hand panels of Fig. 2. Now NH white subjects have the highest predicted %fat levels at age 70 years while NH blacks continue to have the lowest levels of predicted %fat. These observations indicate that simple generalizations on race/ethnic differences in BMI–adiposity relations are not possible without delving further into an understanding of how stature, age and adiposity collectively relate to BMI. Similar BMI–adiposity patterns are observed at BMI levels above and below 25 kg m−2 using the NHANES %fat prediction equations shown in Supplementary Table 3 and Supplementary Fig. 1....

__________________________________

Elderly Mexicans have less muscle and greater total and truncal fat compared to African-Americans and Caucasians with the same BMI

2009

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19924354/


__________________________________


Differences in Body Composition in Older People from Two Regions of Mexico: Implications for Diagnoses of Sarcopenia and Sarcopenic Obesity

2018

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30105245/


__________________________________

 

 Lean mass, muscle strength, and physical function in a diverse population of men: a population-based cross-sectional study

August 21, 2010

https://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1471-2458-10-508

 

__________________________________

Do Sex or Race Differences Influence Strength Training Effects on Muscle or Fat?

2010

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2991130/


__________________________________


Impact of Race/Ethnicity on the Relationship Between Visceral Fat and Inflammatory Biomarkers

September 06, 2012

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1038/oby.2008.657



Abstract

The purpose of this study was to determine whether racial/ethnic differences exist in the relationship between visceral adipose tissue (VAT) and selected inflammatory biomarkers. Subjects included 136 African‐American, 133 Hispanic, and 100 white men and women, aged ≥45. Waist circumference and BMI were measured using standard methods. Total VAT, and VAT and subcutaneous adipose tissue (SAT) at the L4L5 spinal level were measured using computed tomography. Interleukin‐6 (IL‐6), C‐reactive protein (CRP), and fibrinogen were measured from fasting blood samples. Results revealed that waist circumference and BMI were similar among groups but African Americans had significantly lower L4L5 VAT compared with Hispanics and whites. Despite lower VAT, African‐American men had similar concentrations of inflammatory biomarkers. On the other hand, African‐American women had higher CRP and IL‐6 than white women, and higher fibrinogen than both Hispanic and white women. After controlling for L4L5 VAT, L4L5 SAT, and age, African‐American women had higher concentrations of IL‐6 and fibrinogen. Stratified analyses for CRP indicated that L4L5 SAT was associated with CRP in African‐American and white women after controlling for L4L5 VAT and age, but that the reverse was not true. These data indicate that African Americans had lower VAT but similar or higher concentrations of inflammatory biomarkers. African‐American women consistently displayed greater inflammation compared with whites, even after controlling for VAT or SAT.



__________________________________


Interethnic Differences in Muscle, Liver and Abdominal Fat Partitioning in Obese Adolescents

2007

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1892806/

Abstract

The prevalence of insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes (T2D) in obese youth is rapidly increasing, especially in Hispanics and African Americans compared to Caucasians. Insulin resistance is known to be associated with increases in intramyocellular (IMCL) and hepatic fat content. We determined if there are ethnic differences in IMCL and hepatic fat content in a multiethnic cohort of 55 obese adolescents. We used ¹H magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) to quantify IMCL levels in the soleus muscle, oral glucose tolerance testing to estimate insulin sensitivity, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) to measure abdominal fat distribution. Liver fat content was measured by fast–MRI. Despite similar age and % total body fat among the groups, IMCL was significantly higher in the Hispanics (1.71% [1.43%, 2.0%]) than in the African-Americans (1.04% [0.75%, 1.34%], p = 0.013) and the Caucasians (1.2% [0.94%, 1.5%], p = 0.04). Liver fat content was undetectable in the African Americans whereas it was two fold higher than normal in both Caucasians and Hispanics. Visceral fat was significantly lower in African Americans (41.5 cm² [34.6, 49.6]) and was similar in Caucasians (65.2 cm² [55.9, 76.0]) and Hispanics (70.5 cm² [59.9, 83.1]). In a multiple regression analysis, we found that ethnicity independent of age, gender and % body fat accounts for 10% of the difference in IMCL. Our study indicates that obese Hispanic adolescents have a greater IMCL lipid content than both Caucasians and African Americans, of comparable weight, age and gender. Excessive accumulation of fat in the liver was found in both Caucasian and Hispanic groups as opposed to virtually undetectable levels in the African Americans. Thus, irrespective of obesity, there seem to be some clear ethnic differences in the amount of lipid accumulated in skeletal muscle, liver and abdominal cavity.

__________________________________

Why BMI is inaccurate and misleading

2013

BMI (body mass index), which is based on the height and weight of a person, is an inaccurate measure of body fat content and does not take into account muscle mass, bone density, overall body composition, and racial and sex differences, say researchers from the Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania.

https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/265215

 

__________________________________

What Your BMI Doesn’t Tell You

https://www.webmd.com/diet/features/bmi-drawbacks-and-other-measurements#1

 

__________________________________

 

Ethnic Differences in BMI and Disease Risk

https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/obesity-prevention-source/ethnic-differences-in-bmi-and-disease-risk/

 

__________________________________


High Hydration Factor in Older Hispanic-American Adults: Possible Implications for Accurate Body Composition Estimates

2019

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31795327/


__________________________________


Muscle Strength and Functional Limitations: Preserving Function in Older Mexican Americans

2018

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29371128/


__________________________________


Muscle Weakness Is Associated With Diabetes in Older Mexicans: The Mexican Health and Aging Study

2016

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27450948/



__________________________________

Skeletal muscle mass indices in healthy young Mexican adults aged 20-40 years: implications for diagnoses of sarcopenia in the elderly population


2014

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24688417/


__________________________________

Sarcopenic obesity and physical performance in middle aged women: a cross-sectional study in Northeast Brazil

2016


https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26775160/


__________________________________

Scaling of adult body weight to height across sex and race/ethnic groups: relevance to BMI

2014

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25411280/


__________________________________

Racial and Ethnic Differences in Obesity in People With Spinal Cord Injury

https://msktc.org/sci/quick-reviews/racial-and-ethnic-differences-obesity-people-spinal-cord-injury

What is the study about?

The aim of this study was to examine what role neighborhoods, race, and ethnicity play in obesity rates for individuals with spinal cord injury (SCI).
What did the study find?

The study found Hispanics had the highest obesity rate than other racial groups. Non-Hispanic blacks and Hispanics tend to reside in neighborhoods with high rates of poverty, unemployment, and low socio-economic status, as determined by the Concentrated Disadvantaged Index. Regardless of race and ethnicity, individuals with SCI from disadvantaged neighborhoods were more likely to be obese.


__________________________________

 

Racial Differences in Data Quality and Completeness: Spinal Cord Injury Model Systems' Experiences

2018

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5915102/

 

__________________________________


Racial Differences in Data Quality and Completeness: Spinal Cord Injury Model Systems' Experiences

2018

https://archive.scijournal.com/doi/abs/10.1310/sci2402-110


__________________________________

 

Differences in the Iliolumbar Ligament and the Transverse Process of the L5 Vertebra in Young White and Black People

1998

https://www.karger.com/Article/Abstract/46501


Abstract

The anatomy of the iliolumbar ligament (ILL) and the spatial orientation of the transverse process of the L5 vertebra were studied in 62 young black (n = 29) and white (n = 33) men and women during routine autopsy. The aim of the study was to determine possible racial differences in the structure and attachments of the iliolumbar ligament. The present study also investigated the spatial orientation of the transverse process of the L5 vertebra since the ILL has been reported to attach to the transverse process. The measurements of the iliolumbar ligament were carried out with a digital vernier caliper while the transverse process angles were measured with an adjustable protractor. The ligament in black people was made up of a single, markedly longer band compared to white people, where the ligament was made up of two shorter bands. The ILL measured 61.8 ± 1.3 mm in black and 33.2 ± 1.5 mm white men, and in black women 61.3 ± 0.9 mm versus 32.2 ± 1.2 mm in white women (p <0.01). Further, the ILL was markedly wider in black than white subjects (p <0.01). The horizontal and vertical angle also varied greatly between black and white subjects (p <0.01). These are previously unrecognized observations. Albeit unsubstantiated, these findings may have implications for understanding the etiology of various low back stress problems.

 

__________________________________

Spinal Conditions


https://www.boneandjointburden.org/fourth-edition/viid1/spinal-conditions


 Racial disparities in the prevalence of spinal conditions have sparsely been discussed in the literature. Most spinal deformities, including scoliosis, have the higher rates of diagnosis in Caucasians (BMUS). A 2011 retrospective study of patients over 40 years old revealed a prevalence of almost twice the rate of scoliosis in whites compared to African-Americans (AA).1 Specific to adolescent idiopathic scoliosis (AIS), African-American patients had higher curvatures at presentation compared with whites and Hispanics. Therefore, they were more likely to have surgery as their initial treatment.2 For this reason, AA patients may need to present at an earlier age for screening. There is a general belief that genetics play a role in progression of AIS; however, it is unknown which genetic factors or whether race is involved.

Lumbar radiculopathy is a spinal nerve root condition caused by nerve compression, inflammation, or injury in the lumbar spine. In a database study of a young, military population, lumbar radiculopathy was found to be more common among white patients.3 Lumbar spinal stenosis, a narrowing of the spinal canal resulting in nerve compression, is another major cause of low back pain and nerve symptom. Overall, hospitalizations for this condition have been reported to be much more common in whites. Blacks and Hispanics have lower rates of surgical hospitalization for lumbar spinal stenosis than did whites.4 Cultural barriers and attitude toward surgery may be responsible for this difference. In patients undergoing surgery for lumbar stenosis, blacks have higher complication rates, longer hospital stays, less likelihood of discharge home, and short preoperative and postoperative follow-up.5,6 African-American patients also accrue higher hospital-related costs and are prescribed fewer medications.5 Cervical spine surgeries have also been analyzed. African-American patients have higher rates of in-hospital complications and mortality than other ethnicities.7 Much of this difference was likely due to socioeconomic status, insurance status, and access issues.

Ankylosing spondylitis (AS) is an inflammatory arthritis that primarily affects the spine. AS is highly associated with the HLA B27 gene. AS is three times more common in whites than in blacks.8 This is mostly due to the lower prevalence of HLA-B27 in individuals of African descent. A prospective study by Jamalyaria et al compared the disease severity of AS in different ethnic groups. They determined that African-Americans, and Hispanics to a lesser degree, have greater functional impairment, higher disease activity, and greater radiographic severity compared to whites.9 The reason for this could not be determine; however, access to care and genetics are potential factors.

There is conflicting data related to racial differences in back pain. Hootman and Strine reported on 3-month prevalence rates of neck and back pain and found a higher prevalence in whites than other ethnic groups.10 Knox et al analyzed the rates of low back pain in military service members resulting in a visit to a health care provider and reported the highest incidence rates among African-Americans.11 The reason behind the variability is unknown; however, there is believed to be a genetic component. Importantly, a survey study found no significant differences in care-seeking behavior between racial groups for acute or chronic low back pain.12


__________________________________

 

Early spondyloarthritis in multiracial society: differences between gender, race, and disease subgroups with regard to first symptom at presentation, main problem that the disease is causing to patients, and employment status

2011

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21328058/

 

Abstract

To determine whether the first presenting symptoms, the main problem that the disease is causing to patients, and the employment status at presentation of patients with early spondyloarthritis (SpA) in a multicultural/multiracial patient cohort are different between gender, race, and disease subgroups of the SpA spectrum (ankylosing spondylitis, enteropathic arthritis, psoriatic arthritis, or undifferentiated arthritis). All patients above the age of 16 years, with disease duration of less than 3 years since symptom onset, seen in clinic between 2004 and 2008 with spondyloarthritis (SpAs) were assessed regarding their first presenting symptom, the main problem caused by the disease, and their employment status. In addition, clinical parameters such as the degree of disease activity (measured by BASDAI, ESR, and CRP), functional ability (measured by BASFI), night pain, sleep disturbance, well-being over past week, and over past 6 months prior to assessment (measured by a 10 cm VAS; 0 = good health, 10 = worst possible) were obtained. Statistical analysis with Pearson's χ(2) test compared and correlated two groups, and one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used when more than two groups were compared and correlated. A total of 96 patients [(male:female = 33:63; (34.4:65.6%), (mean age 43.8 ± (SD) 13.9)] with early SpA were assessed. They were of multiethnic background representing Caucasians (n = 52; 54.2%), Asians (n = 33; 34.4%), and Africans (n = 10; 10.4%) mixed race (n = 1; 1%). The disease spectrum consisted of ankylosing spondylitis (AS) (n = 12; 12.7%), enteropathic arthritis or SpA associated with inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) (n = 9; 9.4%), psoriatic arthritis (PsA) (n = 47; 49%), undifferentiated spondyloarthritis (USpA) (n = 27; 28.2%), reactive arthritis (n = 1;1%), and juvenile SpA (n = 1;1%). Back pain stated as the first presenting symptom by 45 patients (46.8%) (followed by knee pain) and joint pains as the main problem by 49 patients (51.7%), while 47 patients of 93 who replied on the employment section (50.5%) were working. The total group had BASDAI score of 5.91 (±2.1), ESR of 19.65 (±19.4) mmHg/h, CRP of 8.10 (±9.2) mmol/L, BASFI score of 4.51 (±2.57), night pain of 5.26 (±3.2), sleep disturbance of 5.24 (±3.03) well-being over past week of 5.9 (±2.7), and well-being over past 6 months of 6.4 (±2.5). Most patients had PsA at presentation. Comparisons between genders showed significantly more women to have knee pain as first presenting symptom than men. No differences between races found in the first presenting symptom, main problem caused to patients by disease, and employment, but Africans have significantly more sleep disturbance than other races. Comparisons between disease subgroups showed patients with AS to have significantly more back pain and hip pain as first presenting symptom and patients with IBD to have more joint pain as main problem caused by the disease.

 

__________________________________

 

 Lost Posture: Why Some Indigenous Cultures May Not Have Back Pain

June 8, 2015

https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2015/06/08/412314701/lost-posture-why-indigenous-cultures-dont-have-back-pain


__________________________________


The Effect of Server Posture on the Tips of Whites and Blacks

2007

https://scholarship.sha.cornell.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=&httpsredir=1&article=1032&context=articles

 

__________________________________

 

Adolescent idiopathic scoliosis curves requiring surgery may be related to race

February 01, 2011

https://www.healio.com/news/orthopedics/20120325/adolescent-idiopathic-scoliosis-curves-requiring-surgery-may-be-related-to-race

 

__________________________________


Race–ethnicity and poverty after spinal cord injury

2014

https://www.nature.com/articles/sc2013147.pdf?origin=ppub


__________________________________

Ethnicity/racial differences in employment outcomes following Spinal Cord Injury

2009

https://content.iospress.com/articles/neurorehabilitation/nre00452

 

__________________________________


How Are Race, Cultural, and Psychosocial Factors Associated With Outcomes in Veterans With Spinal Cord Injury?

2017

https://europepmc.org/articles/pmc6159211/bin/nihms986544-supplement-1.pdf


__________________________________

Racial disparities in bladder management in veterans with spinal cord injury and disorders


February 22, 2019

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/nau.23942

 

__________________________________

Racial and Ethnic Differences in Obesity in People With Spinal Cord Injury: The Effects of Disadvantaged Neighborhood

September 2019

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0003999319301686


__________________________________

Does Race Have an Effect on the Health of Your Spine?

https://drkevinpauza.com/does-race-have-an-effect-on-the-health-of-your-spine/


Degenerative Spondylolisthesis

Degenerative spondylolisthesis occurs when one of the vertebrae in the spine slips forward, moving over the top of the vertebrae below it. This is increasingly common as the body ages because the joints begin to break down and have difficulty holding the spine in proper alignment. This most often occurs in the lower back with the lumbar spine.

Researchers found African Americans to be at a higher risk for this disease than other races. They think that this may be due to the fact that African Americans, on average, tend to have a higher body mass index and a more prevalent family history of joint problems. Because of this, African Americans also tend to have a higher number of surgical fusions performed because this treatment is often used to address this issue.
Intervertebral Disc Herniation

Intervertebral disc herniation occurs when the intervertebral discs between the vertebrae break down and rupture or tear. This causes the fluid inside the discs to leak out, resulting in less cushioning between vertebrae and an increased chance for nerves to become pinched.

Researchers noted that Caucasians, Hispanics, and Asians were all more likely to experience this back problem. However, they were unsure as to why this would be the case.


__________________________________

Depression among African Americans, Latinos, and Caucasians with spinal cord injury: A exploratory study.

August 1999

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232519082_Depression_among_African_Americans_Latinos_and_Caucasians_with_spinal_cord_injury_A_exploratory_study

__________________________________




Why are White people the strongest race?

 

 https://answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20101122180344AAQNI5t&guccounter=1&guce_referrer=aHR0cHM6Ly9kdWNrZHVja2dvLmNvbS8_cT13aGl0ZStyYWNlK2hhcytzdHJvbmdlcit1cHBlcitib2R5K3N0cmVuZ3RoJnQ9aGsmaWE9d2Vi&guce_referrer_sig=AQAAAKh753W3-lyHmGdPjzIPBETroHTUbO9nYhiyth5SV5cIgfpG7gmh8NXzUzyB9E2ShxvrllfNeO9PuxjIH_RkpnzHRg1waK-GwCd-xsuAcOv1q4JkXGB36M3kvI3bpK9eZJQDzpgnoSBLDsyquGpwL0giG0d8mXMN6WRmlJat8rq1

I hear it's because of their Neanderthal genes. Please don't answer if you don't have a good answer with solid evidence.


Comment

Look up the World's Strongest Man Competition.  All I see are a bunch of huge white men with nary a black in sight.  Whites also dominate freestyle wrestling which is a sport where upper body strength is key to success.  Blacks have physical advantages when it comes to fighting/boxing such as thick bones and fast twitch muscle fibers which makes them faster.  That's why they are perceived as stronger.

I think that whites can attribute this type of brute strength to Neanderthal genes.  Blacks are the only race that don't have any Neanderthal genome, whereas other races have 1-4% Neanderthal genes.

Comment:

Whites don't have neanderthal genes , its Neanderthals that have north African genes, There are two groups of  Africans north Africans and ****** or I should respell it because yahoo answered thinks its racist to say knee grow for some reason. Neanderthal evolved from north Africans and so did modern day white people as well as other people of the world that are not sub Saharan.  To answer the question though I think it has to do with muscle fibers and the length of the muscle belly black people have shorter muscle belly's this helps with speed but not strength.

Comment:

Because white people are tallest and have biggest weight compared to other races.Thats a fact !


__________________________________

Blacks Are Not Stronger Than Whites

2016

https://notpoliticallycorrect.me/2016/10/19/blacks-are-not-stronger-than-whites/



Blacks being stronger than whites (on average) is one of the most common misconceptions around. People assume that since blacks are, on average, more muscular and have less fat mass they are stronger than whites and East Asians. However, when looked at physiologically, the frequency of muscle fiber types (Type I, Type II and Type II A) differ between the races. The differing somatypes (mesomorph, ectomorph and endomorph) also show how there are differences in strength between races due to leverage.

Some people, like PumpkinPerson, fall prey to this simplistic, yet with great explanatory power for a lot of things, Rushton’s Rule. Rushton’s rule dictates that there is a gradient of traits that some races perform statistically better or worse on with Mongoloids at the top, whites in the middle and blacks on the bottom. PP assumes that blacks should be stronger than whites who would be stronger than East Asians due to this rule. He also assumes that since blacks have slightly more testosterone on average that they would be the physically strongest race. This, however, is not true.

PP says:

    One reason they believe this is because of Allen’s Rule, a theory claiming that body types evolve to become more linear in warm climates and more rounded and compact in cold climates. Round forms, having smaller surface area to volume ratios, are thought to freeze less easily. There’s also Bergmann’s Rule which asserts, for similar reasons, that body size evolves to be large in cold climates and small in warm climates.

Somatype has more to do with it than Allen’s Rule. Blacks are more mesomorphic whereas whites are more endo.

    One reason Allen’s rule makes sense to people is their image of black physiques comes from Third World African countries where malnutrition is rampant. Of course people in those countries are especially skinny, but when you compare blacks and whites reared in the same country, blacks are heavier, despite being a bit shorter.

On the contrary. As I’ve covered here before, black American men with more African ancestry are less likely to be obese. Still, racial differences in strength come down to leverage as well as muscle fiber typings which I’ve discussed a few times here.

    Of course weight and strength are not the same thing.  In order to compare the races in strength, I found a study of police officers which compared the bench pressing ability of black and white officers, both at the time they were recruited, and after years on the job.  The study found that upon recruitment, the average white man could bench press 84.2 kg (standard deviation = 21.2), the average black could bench press 95.1 kg (SD = 24.6).  In other words, black men are 0.51 SD stronger than white men.  If we convert strength to farmilliar IQ scale, where the white mean is set at 100 and the white SD is set at 15, then white men have a (sex adjusted) SQ (Strength Quotient) of 100, and black men have an SQ of 108.

    Both races improved after years of on the job training, but the gap remained.  Black women could also bench press more than white women, both at recruitment, and especially after training in both groups.


From the discussion of the study:

    “The literature suggests that increases in body mass correspond with increases in
    lean mass by as much as 44% (11). The officers in this study gained a significant amount of body mass and correspondingly, a significant amount of lean mass. Lean mass is associated with increases in strength (11, 25, 27). Therefore, we would expect to see an increase in absolute bench press strength related to lean mass gain alone. However, the strength gains were negated when dividing the body mass of the officers into their bench press scores. This pattern was not seen in the black males, where they actually decreased in the bench press/body mass ratio. Even though the bench press/body mass measure did not increase over the 12.5 years for black males, it also did not decline as indicated in cross-sectional research.”

It seems this is anomalous. The researchers say this is the only study looking at this, and from what I can tell, they didn’t ask about dietary and or exercise habits, correct me if I’m wrong. They also say that blacks were heavier in BMI at the onset, but not in the follow-up.

I’d like to see another study like this before any conclusions are drawn. Because what I see in actual powerlifting competitions from people who go above and beyond their genetic potential when everyone is using, Caucasians (whites, MENA people) and East Asians are consistently always stronger than blacks.

Moreover, it seems PP didn’t read the full paper because they say in the discussion that blacks had a greater weight gain over the ten-year period. They had a greater body mass gain which corresponded to a loss in bench press as well as a loss in lean mass. However, even with these losses in the black subjects in this cohort, they were still stronger than whites, but the difference was not significant. Further, blacks decreased in strength in the 12.5 year period while the whites increased in strength. Blacks were STILL stronger than whites at the end of the study, but this difference was not statistically significant.

This study was anomalous and goes against everything I’ve personally seen in my time lifting and my career as a PT. Caucasians and East Asians are stronger than blacks. The differences come down to muscle fiber typing as I’ve said numerous times.

There is a correlation between strength and mortality. With a sample of 8762 men between the ages of 20 and 80, it was found that muscular strength was inversely and independently associated with death from all causes and cancer in men even after adjusting for cardiorespiratory fitness and other possible confounders. 

 

From the discussion of the paper:

    The analysis on the combined effects of muscular strength and cardiorespiratory fitness with all cause mortality showed that the age adjusted death rate in men with high levels of both muscular strength and cardiorespiratory fitness was 60% lower (P<0.001) than the death rate in the group of unfit men with the lowest levels of muscular strength. These results highlight the importance of having at least moderate levels of both muscular strength and cardiorespiratory fitness to reduce risk of death from all causes and cancer in this population of men.

The point of bringing this paper up is that Caucasians and Asians are stronger than blacks, and also live longer. This is just like the correlation between IQ and life expectancy. Since men with higher levels of strength live longer than men with lower levels of strength, this strengthens my hypothesis for strength-based competitions and the racial mix of the competitions. Caucasians and East Asians, who have higher IQs than blacks, are also stronger than them on average, which also correlates with life expectancy.

I already covered the above here.

PP says:

    2) The average white is weaker than the average black, but there might be certain white ethnic groups that are especially strong

Northern Europeans dominate in Strongman. Blacks are more lanky, yet they are also more mesomorphic which correlates with strength so it cancels out. From what I see at my own gym I go to, which is a powerlifting/bodybuilding gym, Caucasians and East Asians are consistently stronger than blacks. I’ve been lifting going on ten years and this is my personal observation. I’ll see the outlier here and there, but the whites and East Asians are consistently stronger. Southern Europe does do bad in Strongman, so it may be that only Central and Northern Europe are more strength oriented, probably coinciding with Rushton’s Rule.

    3) whites have lower mean strength but might have a greater standard deviation; however the police study above did not find this, and it fails to explain why black dominate body building

No way do whites have a lower mean strength. From what we can see from the genetic freaks of nature, the best of the best, Caucasians and East Asians dominate in these types of competitions.

Strength doesn’t matter in bodybuilding, PP.

This is the perfect example of one who thinks that blacks are stronger because of their domination in bodybuilding. BUT, actual strength competitions tell us the opposite.

    4) whites dominate strongest man competitions because they’re not athletic enough to do anything else, while the strongest blacks play lucrative sports like boxing, football and basketball instead.

You’re right; whites dominate Strongman because of a genetic predisposition, Type I muscle fibers. This is why whites aren’t as athletic as blacks, muscle fiber typing and the fact the whites, on average, hold more body fat than blacks, as seen above in the article of mine that I linked.

It’s not about blacks playing the more lucrative sports. Blacks gravitate towards sports where they can showcase their athleticism and people pay to see that.

Here’s a BB.com thread. Of course ‘da socialization!!’ trots out and at least one person says genes and another says ‘speed’. Which is the correct answer. You didn’t bring up muscle fibers either PP. For instance, as I said, Type I fibers lead to more strength and muscular endurance as they are slow to fire off, while Type II fibers fire quicker and tire faster. This is why West African blacks and their descendants dominate in sprinting and other competitions where fast twitch muscle fibers dominate in comparison to slow twitch. The two fibers also fire through different pathways (aerobic and anaerobic) which also dictate the rate of force production, muscle contraction, and whether or not the muscles fire off fast or slow.

Araujo et al (2010) analyzed “racial/ethnic differences and racial/ethnic group-specific cross-sectional age differences in measures of muscle mass, muscle strength, and physical function among men.” They obtained the data from the Boston Area Health and Bone survey. There were 1,157 subjects in the cohort between the ages of 30-79, and a mix of blacks, whites and ‘Hispanic’ men from Boston who were randomly selected. They measured upper body strength with a hand dynamometer while lower extremity functioning was measured with walking and chair tests. The only thing, however, was that there was no statistical difference between whites and blacks in the grip strength test, however whites edged out blacks slightly.

The authors state:

    In contrast, grip strength/arms lean mass differed significantly by race/ethnicity, with higher estimates observed among white compared to black and Hispanic subjects (p < .01). However, further adjustment for composite physical function score and LMI confounded this association (p = .15).

This proves my point (along with my years of anecdotal experience) that whites are stronger than blacks.

Finally, the authors state in the conclusion:

    Further exploration of why higher lean mass in non-white subjects do not appear to translate into higher strength and physical function is warranted.

The difference is muscle fiber typing!!! This, PP, shows that blacks are not stronger than whites, despite blacks ‘looking stronger’.

In conclusion, blacks aren’t stronger than whites. Check out any strength competition or and WSM competition and you’ll see exactly what I’m describing here. The people in those competitions are genetic freaks of nature, the best of the best. If there is a difference between races in these competitions, it would come out at the elite level. Like with football, baseball, and swimming, there are racial differences in strength which clearly come down to genetics and muscle fiber typing. Everything doesn’t fit into Rushton’s Rule as there are more complicated differences between the races that need more complicated explanations. Strength is one of them. This is just like how the Alternative Hypothesis thinks they “solved Gary Taubes’s race problem in regards to diet“. However, both PP and the guys at TAH don’t know enough about nutrition nor strength training to make these judgements.



__________________________________

Muscular Strength By Gender and Race

2017

https://notpoliticallycorrect.me/2017/03/14/muscular-strength-by-gender-and-race/

 

__________________________________



Pygmy Peoples

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pygmy_peoples

__________________________________

__________________________________

__________________________________

__________________________________

__________________________________

Section 16: Stomach & Genetics

__________________________________

__________________________________

__________________________________

__________________________________

__________________________________

And you thought it was just fluff? New bacteria found in belly-buttons

July 8, 2011


https://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/and-you-thought-it-was-just-fluff-new-bacteria-found-in-belly-buttons-2308796.html


Scientists have found 1,400 strains of bacteria lurking in human belly buttons. The discovery was made during a study in which 95 volunteers allowed a team of microbiologists to gaze at their navels and take swabs from inside their belly buttons.

When the team behind the project checked the samples against a database of existing bacteria, they found 662 unrecognised strains, which might even be new species.

Although 1,400 different strains were found, 80 per cent were from 40 more common species. Many of the bacteria found were ordinary skin dwellers that are typically harmless. "We're probably the only ones studying human belly buttons on such a large scale," said project leader Jiri Hulcr of North Carolina State University when the study – Belly Button Biodiversity – launched in April.

As well as giving swabs, volunteers also submitted information about how often they clean their belly buttons, whether they have an "innie" or an "outie", as well as their age, sex, ethnicity and where they grew up.

Writing on the project's website, the team addressed the question many might be asking: why study the belly button? "Because everybody has one, it's what once connected us to our past. Yet, we barely notice it in our daily lives, to the point that few people actually wash theirs. Which is great for the bacteria," they wrote.

Among the volunteers to provide samples were New Scientist journalist Peter Aldhous and science writer Carl Zimmer. Some navels, such as Aldous's, were devoid of life, but Zimmer's belly button harboured "at least 53 species of bacteria".

After receiving his results, he wrote: "Several species I've got, such as Marimonas, have only been found in the ocean before. I am particularly baffled that I carry a species called Georgenia. Before me, scientists had only found it living in the soil. In Japan."

The team behind the project were keen to point out that the vast majority of these bacteria do no harm.

"We imagine germs as bad, and yet most are not. Most are either good or simply present," they wrote.

"The diversity on our bodies is, like any biological diversity, fascinating and full of awe and we want to share the joy of discovering it."



__________________________________

What are the race-related demographics for abdominal umbilical hernias?

Jul 23, 2019

https://www.medscape.com/answers/189563-45218/what-are-the-race-related-demographics-for-abdominal-umbilical-hernias

 

__________________________________

 

Impact of Race and Socioeconomic Status on Presentation and Management of Ventral Hernias

August 2010

https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamasurgery/fullarticle/406200

 

__________________________________


Navel-Gazing Researchers ID Which Species Live in Our Belly Buttons (But Don’t Know Why)

November 7, 2012

https://news.ncsu.edu/2012/11/wms-belly-button-biodiversity/



__________________________________


'Rainforest' of bacteria lives in our belly buttons!

Nov 16 2012

http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/rainforest-of-bacteria-lives-in-our-belly-buttons-/1031995/


__________________________________

Belly button home to bacterial zoo

2011

August 2, 2011

https://www.abc.net.au/science/articles/2011/08/02/3283433.htm


__________________________________


New meaning to 'navel-gazing': Scientists study belly button bacteria

April 14, 2011

https://www.nbcnews.com/health/body-odd/new-meaning-navel-gazing-scientists-study-belly-button-bacteria-flna1C6437445


__________________________________

After 2 Years Scientists Still Can t Solve Belly Button Mystery, Continue Navel-Gazing

November 7, 2012

https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/guest-blog/after-two-years-scientists-still-cant-solve-belly-button-mystery-continue-navel-gazing/


__________________________________


Could Your Body Piercing Be Affecting Your Health? Its Impact On Acne, GI System & More


February 26, 2020


https://www.peacefuldumpling.com/body-piercing-health

 

__________________________________

 

 What does the 'belly button challenge' tell us about Chinese beauty standards?

April 18, 2016

https://www.bbc.co.uk/bbcthree/article/8fc40d29-f709-44cb-9666-c53788ffcecf

 

__________________________________


Weird Science: Could Belly buttons Explain Racial Differences in Sports?

July 14, 2010

https://newsfeed.time.com/2010/07/14/weird-science-could-bellybuttons-explain-racial-differences-in-sports/


__________________________________


What's the secret to running and swimming faster? The position of your belly button, say scientists

July 13, 2010

https://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-1294141/Whats-secret-running-swimming-faster-The-position-belly-button-say-scientists.html


__________________________________

The evolution of speed in athletics: Why the fastest runners are black and swimmers white

August 2010

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/268060016_The_evolution_of_speed_in_athletics_Why_the_fastest_runners_are_black_and_swimmers_white


__________________________________

 

Racial/Ethnic Disparities in Fatal Unintentional Drowning Among Persons Aged ≤29 Years — United States, 1999–2010

May 16, 2014

https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm6319a2.htm


In the United States, almost 4,000 persons die from drowning each year (1). Drowning is responsible for more deaths among children aged 1–4 years than any other cause except congenital anomalies (2). For persons aged ≤29 years, drowning is one of the top three causes of unintentional injury death (2). Previous research has identified racial/ethnic disparities in drowning rates (3,4). To describe these differences by age of decedent and drowning setting, CDC analyzed 12 years of combined mortality data from 1999–2010 for those aged ≤29 years. Among non-Hispanics, the overall drowning rate for American Indians/Alaska Natives (AI/AN) was twice the rate for whites, and the rate for blacks was 1.4 times the rate for whites. Disparities were greatest in swimming pools, with swimming pool drowning rates among blacks aged 5–19 years 5.5 times higher than those among whites in the same age group. This disparity was greatest at ages 11–12 years; at these ages, blacks drown in swimming pools at 10 times the rate of whites. Drowning prevention strategies include using barriers (e.g., fencing) and life jackets, actively supervising or lifeguarding, teaching basic swimming skills and performing bystander cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR). The practicality and effectiveness of these strategies varies by setting; however, basic swimming skills can be beneficial across all settings.

 

__________________________________

An Examination between Swimming Ability, Gender, and Race - An Exploratory Investigation


2014

https://digitalcommons.georgiasouthern.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1005&context=honors-theses

__________________________________

See, White People Have Belly Buttons Like This

July 13, 2010

https://www.theawl.com/2010/07/see-white-people-have-belly-buttons-like-this/


Why do black people run faster than white people while white people swim faster than black people? Hahaha, are you kidding? There’s NO WAY I’m touching that question! Science, however, is less concerned with the attendant controversies: Researchers at Duke University have determined that the placement of the belly button-the body’s center of gravity-makes all the difference. Study author Andre Bejan breaks it down.

    ‘Individuals of West African-origin have longer legs than European-origin athletes, which means their belly-buttons are three centimeters (1.18 inches) higher than whites.’

    That means the black athletes have a “hidden height” that is three percent greater than whites’, which gives them a significant speed advantage on the track.

    Professor Bejan adds: ‘Locomotion is essentially a continual process of falling forward, and mass that falls from a higher altitude, falls faster.’

    In the pool, meanwhile, whites have the advantage because they have longer torsos, so their belly-buttons sit lower on the body.

Before you get all, I dunno, however you’re going to get, do make a note of this: The study “focused on the athletes’ geographic origins and biology, not race, which the authors of the study call a ‘social construct.’” So there you go.


__________________________________

Scientists Discover Why Black Runners Are Faster Than Whites

July 12, 2010

https://newsone.com/591035/scientists-discover-why-black-runners-are-faster-than-whites/


WASHINGTON — Scientists have found the reason why blacks dominate on the running track and whites in the swimming pool: it’s in their belly-buttons, a study published Monday shows.

What’s important is not whether an athlete has an innie or an outie but where his or her navel is in relation to the rest of the body, says the study published in the International Journal of Design and Nature and Ecodynamics.

Check out our gallery of black track superstars:

The navel is the center of gravity of the body, and given two runners or swimmers of the same height, one black and one white, “what matters is not total height but the position of the belly-button, or center of gravity,” Duke University professor Andre Bejan, the lead author of the study, told AFP.

“It so happens that in the architecture of the human body of West African-origin runners, the center of gravity is significantly higher than in runners of European origin,” which puts them at an advantage in sprints on the track, he said.

Individuals of West African-origin have longer legs than European-origin athletes, which means their belly-buttons are three centimeters (1.18 inches) higher than whites’, said Bejan.

That means the black athletes have a “hidden height” that is three percent greater than whites’, which gives them a significant speed advantage on the track.


__________________________________


New study reveals how high-mileage running makes muscles and tendons more efficient

February 15, 2017

https://theconversation.com/new-study-reveals-how-high-mileage-running-makes-muscles-and-tendons-more-efficient-73007



__________________________________


The Potential Relationship Between Leg Bone Length and Running Performance in Well‐Trained Endurance Runners

Nov 30, 2019

https://content.sciendo.com/view/journals/hukin/70/1/article-p165.xml?language=en


__________________________________



Why do black people seem have a prevalence of outie belly buttons?

https://www.reddit.com/r/NoStupidQuestions/comments/5hnfxq/why_do_black_people_seem_have_a_prevalence_of/



__________________________________


Discrepancies between racial/ethnic groups and choice of hysterectomy procedures

Jun 11, 2020

https://www.endonews.com/discrepancies-between-racial-ethnic-groups-and-choice-of-hysterectomy-procedures


Why white women receive more "minimally invasive" hysterectomies than others?


Key Points

    Highlights:
    Although eligible for minimally invasive hysterectomy, women from minority groups were more likely than white women to receive abdominal hysterectomy, which implicates health disparities.

Importance:

    Hysterectomy by minimally invasive surgery, i.e, vaginal, laparoscopic/robot-assisted hysterectomy is typically preferred over abdominal hysterectomy for benign conditions owing to a quick return to normal activities, fewer complications, and a shorter stay in the surgical clinics.
    More open hysterectomies being practiced for women of African American and ethnic minorities has been a source of concern.

What's done here:

    Hospital discharge data from the State Ambulatory Surgery Databases from several states of the USA were evaluated.
    Adult women who underwent hysterectomy for benign gynecologic conditions between 2010 and 2014 were included in this retrospective study.
    A marginal structural log-binomial regression statistical model was used to estimate adjusted standardized prevalence ratios for minimally invasive versus abdominal hysterectomy
    Data were controlled for clustering among the hospitals.

Key results:

    Although being eligible for minimally invasive hysterectomy, women of African American and ethnic minorities were more likely to receive abdominal hysterectomy compared to whites.
    The percentages of all women undergoing abdominal hysterectomy were highest at hospitals serving mainly African-American populations.
    This may also lead to disparities in outcomes, in part owing to the higher complications in open surgeries and suggest that minority women might experience lower access to minimally invasive surgery.

Limitations:

    Uterine size, leiomyoma characteristics, body mass index, obesity, and patient preference, were not examined.
    In addition, state- and hospital-level variation to provide race/ethnicity information could lead to inconsistent data.


__________________________________


Anatomical differences in the psoas muscles in young black and white men

1998

https://pure.au.dk/portal/files/11908917/HANSON1999.pdf


__________________________________


Sex Differences in Thoracic Dimensions and Configuration

2002

https://www.atsjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1164/rccm.200208-876OC

The volume of adult female lungs is typically 10–12% smaller than that of males who have the same height and age. In this study, we investigated how this volume difference is distributed between the rib cage and the diaphragm abdomen compartments. Internal ribcage  dimensions,  diaphragm  position  relative  to  spine,  and  diaphragm length were compared in 21 normal male and 19 normal female  subjects  at  three  different  lung  volumes  using  anterior–posterior and lateral chest radiographs. At all lung volumes examined, females had smaller radial rib cage dimensions in relationship to height than males, a greater inclination of ribs, a comparable diaphragm dome position relative to the spine, and a shorter diaphragm length. Female subjects exhibited a greater inspiratory ribcage muscle contribution during resting breathing than males, pre-sumably reflecting an improved mechanical advantage conferredto these muscles by the greater inclination of ribs. Because of agreater inclination of ribs, female rib cages could accommodate agreater volume expansion. The results suggest a disproportionate growth of the rib cage in females relative to the lung, which wouldbe well suited to accommodate large abdominal volume displacements as in pregnancy.


__________________________________


Sex differences in respiratory function

2018

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5980468/

 

__________________________________

Association between ribs shape and pulmonary function in patients with Osteogenesis Imperfecta

January 2020

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2090123219301651


__________________________________


How 2-million-year-old ancestor moved: Sediba's ribcage and feet were not suitable for running

April 11, 2013

Researchers have described the anatomy of a single early hominin in six new studies. Australopithecus sediba was discovered near Johannesburg in 2008. The studies demonstrate how our 2-million-year-old ancestor walked, chewed and moved.

https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2013/04/130411142942.htm


__________________________________


Ribs evolved for movement first, then co-opted for breathing

First study on role of ribs in locomotion reveal same mechanics as in aspiration breathing in lizards

    May 19, 2020


A major transformation in vertebrate evolution took place when breathing shifted from being driven by head and throat muscles -- like in fish and frogs -- to the torso -- like in reptiles and mammals. But what caused the shift? A new study posits that the intermediate step was locomotion. When lizards walk, they bend side-to-side. The ribs and vertebrae are crucial to this movement, and the mechanics follow the same pattern as when they inhale and exhale.

https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2020/05/200519153506.htm


__________________________________


Ethnicity as a risk factor for obstructive sleep apnea: comparison of Japanese descendants and white males in São Paulo, Brazil

August 2008

https://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?pid=S0100-879X2008005000033&script=sci_arttext

__________________________________

 Homo erectus Had Stocky Body Shape

Jul 8, 2020

http://www.sci-news.com/othersciences/anthropology/homo-erectus-stocky-body-shape-08616.html


An international team of researchers has created the first 3D reconstruction of the ribcage of the Turkana Boy, a skeleton of the juvenile Homo erectus — the most complete skeleton of this hominin ever found — from Nariokotome, Kenya, and compared it to those of Homo sapiens and Neanderthal. Their results, published in the journal Nature Ecology and Evolution, show that the Turkana Boy had a deeper, wider and shorter ribcage than seen in Homo sapiens, suggesting Homo erectus had a stocky body shape, despite being considered the first long distance runner among our ancestors.
This is an artist's reconstruction of Homo erectus. Image credit: Yale University.

Anatomically modern humans have a relatively tall, slender body shape that contrasts with, for example, the shorter, stocky, heavy bodied Neanderthals.

Paleoanthropologists have long assumed that human body shape originated with the first representatives of Homo erectus in the context of climate changes and the receding forests in tropical Africa, over two million years ago.

Our tall and slender bodies seem evolutionarily advantageous in the expanding hot and dry savannah, helping to avoid overheating and well suited to bipedal running over long distances in more open terrain.

Fossils attributed to Homo erectus point to longer legs and shorter arms than our earlier ancestors, the australopiths, which were bipeds when on the ground, but still retained some commitments to life in the trees.

Several modern body characteristics are particularly clear in the 1.5-million-year-old remains of the Turkana Boy, also known as KNM-WT 15000.

Studies of how this individual walked and ran had largely been restricted to the skeleton’s legs and pelvis. However, for endurance running its breathing capabilities would have been relevant as well.

But this aspect has not before been investigated in any detail because assessing the chest and breathing motion based on a jumble of rib and vertebra fossils is difficult with conventional methods.

However, with the introduction of increasingly sophisticated imaging and reconstruction techniques in recent years this type of examination is now possible.

“It appears that the fully modern human body shape evolved more recently than previously thought, rather than as early as two million years ago when Homo erectus first emerged,” said senior author Professor Fred Spoor, a researcher in the Centre for Human Evolution Research at the Natural History Museum, London, the Department of Human Evolution at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, and the Department of Anthropology at University College London.


__________________________________

Rib injuries in swimmers: a pain in the chest you really should avoid!

https://www.peakendurancesport.com/endurance-injuries-and-health/overuse-injuries/rib-injuries-swimmers-pain-chest-really-avoid/


__________________________________



Racial Differences in Outcomes within the National Lung Screening Trial. Implications for Widespread Implementation

2015

https://www.atsjournals.org/doi/full/10.1164/rccm.201502-0259OC

Abstract

Rationale: Black individuals with lung cancer (LC) experience higher mortality because they present with more advanced disease and are less likely to undergo curative resection for early-stage disease. The National Lung Screening Trial (NLST) demonstrated improved LC mortality by screening high-risk patients with low-dose computed tomography (LDCT). The benefit of LDCT screening in black individuals is unknown.

Objectives: Examine results of the NLST by race.

Methods: This was a secondary analysis of a randomized trial (NCT00047385) performed in 33 U.S. centers.

Measurements and Main Results: Overall and lung cancer–specific mortality were measured. Screening with LDCT reduced LC mortality in all racial groups but more so in black individuals (hazard ratio [HR], 0.61 vs. 0.86). Smoking increased the likelihood of death from LC, and when stratified by race black smokers were twice as likely to die as white smokers (HR, 4.10 vs. 2.25). Adjusting for sociodemographic and behavioral characteristics, black individuals experienced higher all-cause mortality than white individuals (HR, 1.35; 95% confidence interval, 1.22–1.49); however, black individuals screened with LDCT had a reduction in all-cause mortality. Black individuals were younger, were more likely to be current smokers, had more comorbidities, and had fewer years of formal education than white individuals (P < 0.05).

Conclusions: Black individuals screened with LDCT had decreased mortality from lung cancer. However, the demographics associated with improved LC survival were less commonly found in black individuals. The overall mortality in the NLST was higher for black individuals than white individuals, but improved in black individuals screened, suggesting that this subgroup may have had improved access to care. To realize the reductions in mortality from LC screening, dissemination efforts need to be tailored to meet the needs of this community.

__________________________________



Distinct abdominal and gluteal adipose tissue transcriptome signatures are altered by exercise training in African women with obesity

June 24, 2020

https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-020-66868-z

 
__________________________________

Racial differences in lipid metabolism in women with abdominal obesity

2000

https://journals.physiology.org/doi/full/10.1152/ajpregu.2000.279.3.r944

 

__________________________________

Associations of Abdominal Muscle Area and Radiodensity with Adiponectin and Leptin: The Multiethnic Study of Atherosclerosis

2018

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/oby.22208


__________________________________

Shift from androgen to estrogen action causes abdominal muscle fibrosis, atrophy, and inguinal hernia in a transgenic male mouse model

2018

https://www.pnas.org/content/115/44/E10427


__________________________________

Differences in Lumbar and Pelvic Parameters among African American, Caucasian and Asian Populations

2017

https://www.thespinejournalonline.com/article/S1529-9430(17)30720-9/fulltext


__________________________________


Racial Differences in Pelvic Anatomy by Magnetic Resonance Imaging

2008

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2593128/


__________________________________

 

Race, ethnicity may affect how women experience menopause, UT research says

Sep 1, 2012

https://www.statesman.com/article/20120901/NEWS/309017512

__________________________________

Racial Differences in the Diagnosis and Treatment of Prostate Cancer

2016

https://www.einj.org/journal/view.php?doi=10.5213/inj.1632722.361


ABSTRACT

Disparities between African American and Caucasian men in prostate cancer (PCa) diagnosis and treatment in the United States have been well established, with significant racial disparities documented at all stages of PCa management, from differences in the type of treatment offered to progression-free survival or death. These disparities appear to be complex in nature, involving biological determinants as well as socioeconomic and cultural aspects. We present a review of the literature on racial disparities in the diagnosis of PCa, treatment, survival, and genetic susceptibility. Significant differences were found among African Americans and whites in the incidence and mortality rates; namely, African Americans are diagnosed with PCa at younger ages than whites and usually with more advanced stages of the disease, and also undergo prostate-specific antigen testing less frequently. However, the determinants of the high rate of incidence and aggressiveness of PCa in African Americans remain unresolved. This pattern can be attributed to socioeconomic status, detection occurring at advanced stages of the disease, biological aggressiveness, family history, and differences in genetic susceptibility. Another risk factor for PCa is obesity. We found many discrepancies regarding treatment, including a tendency for more African American patients to be in watchful waiting than whites. Many factors are responsible for the higher incidence and mortality rates in African Americans. Better screening, improved access to health insurance and clinics, and more homogeneous forms of treatment will contribute to the reduction of disparities between African Americans and white men in PCa incidence and mortality.





__________________________________

 

Internipple measurements in Indian neonates

2013

http://www.sajch.org.za/index.php/SAJCH/article/view/526/449


Background. Anthropometric parameters such as the distance between the nipples and the internipple index are important signs of some genetic disorders. Indian data on these measurements are scarce.

Objectives. To determine internipple distance and the internipple index and their correlation with gender, birth weight, length, chest circumference and gestational age in term Indian newborns.



__________________________________



What nipple size means for evolutionary biology

Researchers show that female nipples are more diverse in size than male nipples -- going against assumptions from evolutionary biology

June 26, 2018

https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2018/06/180626113341.htm


__________________________________

Comparisons of Breast Pigmentation among Women of Different Racial Groups

December 1975

https://www.jstor.org/stable/41462830?seq=1

 

__________________________________

What nationality are your BREASTS? Plastic surgeons' preferences vary depending on where they live... with the US opting for big nipples, the French favouring a smaller bust and Indians choosing a buxom chest

July 1, 2015

    Study reveals international preferences when it comes to boob jobs
    Plastic surgeons in India prefer the fullest upper breast, while French doctors tend to opt for the least full upper breast
    Brazilians favour largest areola size in both natural and augmented boobs
    Surgeons in the US, India and France also prefer larger areolas

https://www.dailymail.co.uk/health/article-3146192/What-nationality-BREASTS-Plastic-surgeons-preferences-vary-depending-live-opting-big-nipples-French-favouring-smaller-bust-Indians-choosing-buxom-chest.html

 

__________________________________

New Genetic Test Determines Ethnicity By The Color Of Nips

https://www.flexxmag.com/news/new-genetic-test-determines-ethnicity-by-the-color-of-nips



__________________________________




Your Mole May Actually Be a Third Nipple — Here's How to Tell

May 18, 2015

https://www.yahoo.com/lifestyle/your-mole-may-actually-be-a-third-nipple-heres-119290471517.html


__________________________________

Why do people have extra nipples?

May 12th, 2015

https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20150512-the-truth-about-extra-nipples


There are almost as many guesses as to the prevalence of extra nipples as there are studies on the matter.

One study found a prevalence of 0.22% in a Hungarian population; another estimated 0.6% of white American infants; another claimed that 1.63% of Black American infants have them. For Israeli infants, the rate was estimated to be 2.5%; for Israeli-Arabic children, 4.7%; and 5.6% among German children. Another study reported that 5% of Japanese women but only 1.6% of Japanese men have additional nipples, though most other studies find them to be more common in men than in women. Some evidence has suggested that they more commonly erupt on the left side than the right.



__________________________________

 

Accessory breast

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accessory_breast

 

Accessory breasts, also known as polymastia, supernumerary breasts, or mammae erraticae, is the condition of having an additional breast. Extra breasts may appear with or without nipples or areolae. It is a condition and a form of atavism which is most prevalent in male humans, and often goes untreated as it is mostly harmless. In recent years, many affected women have had a plastic surgery operation to remove the additional breasts, for purely aesthetic reasons.

A related condition, in which extra nipples form, is called "supernumerary nipple" or "polythelia". 

 

 Cause

Polymastia typically occurs in the womb during the development. During normal development, breast tissue will develop along the milk line, and additional tissue will disintegrate and be absorbed into the body. Polymastia occurs when the additional tissue doesn’t disintegrate before birth. This condition can be inherited and run in families. 

                                           A woman with several accessory breasts

__________________________________

 

Oz Uncensored: A Woman’s Extra Nipples

https://www.doctoroz.com/videos/oz-uncensored-womans-extra-nipples

 

__________________________________

 

 Meet the woman with SEVEN extra nipples who milks them in front of TV audience

2017

https://www.dailystar.co.uk/health/dr-oz-woman-seven-extra-16979249

 

__________________________________

 

High incidence of supernumerary nipples and twins in Formosan macaques, Macaca cyclopis, at Mt. Longevity, Taiwan


A population of Formosan macaques at Mt. Longevity exhibits an unusually high incidence of supernumerary nipples (polythelia; between 1-6 accessory nipples and/or areolae on 33% of adults), as well as a high rate of twinning (about 1% of births). The coexistence of these unusual traits suggests a connection, which is further supported by a tendency for mothers of twins to have accessory nipples and for twins to be born in troops with high incidence of polythelia.

 

 

 

 

Fig. 1. Adult female Formosan macaque at Mt. Longevity with two symmetric pairs of supernumerary nipples/areolae.


http://pages.ucsd.edu/~jmoore/publications/polythelia.html

 

__________________________________

Is it possible to have three breasts?

https://www.quora.com/Is-it-possible-to-have-three-breasts

Yes. This occurs in a condition called polymastia, which literally translates “multiple breasts.” Sometimes the third breast is merely a nipple or vestige of a nipple, hardly recognizable as a breast (in which case the condition is called accessory nipples, supernumerary nipples, or polythelia, “multiple nipples”). This can occur in both women and men. In polymastia, the extra breast(s) may be more pronounced to varying degrees.

__________________________________

 

 

__________________________________

 

 
Why do people have extra nipples?

https://www.quora.com/Why-do-people-have-extra-nipples

 

__________________________________

Mammae Erraticae: A Case Report and Reappraisal of the Related Theories

2012

Abstract

Extra nipples and breast tissue outside the orthotopic location of the mammary glands are called polythelia and polymastia, respectively. Although the theory of mammary ridge remnants can explain extra breast tissue along the milk line, other locations such as the dorsum of the body still need further discussion. This report describes a 28-year-old Caucasian woman with a perfectly formed breast together with a meningocele in the lumbar region. Kyphoscoliosis and growth retardation were accompanying pathologies. As far as the authors can discern, this is the first case in the literature showing a well-formed breast and dysraphism occurring together.

https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00266-011-9854-1

__________________________________

 

Human tail: A benign condition hidden out of social stigma and shame in young adult – A case report and review

2019

 

 

Figure 1: Preopertive images of 18-cm long human tail in the sacral region

 

Figure 2: Sagittal image of computed tomography scan showing tip of coccyx everted toward base of tail. This everted bony spur is reason for pain while sitting

 

Figure 3: (a) Preoperative sagittal magnetic resonance imaging showing conus lying at L3 and tail arising from sacral region (b) axial magnetic resonance imaging showing spina bifida and fibrous band connecting tail and dura

https://www.asianjns.org/viewimage.asp?img=AsianJNeurosurg_2019_14_1_1_231028_f1.jpg

 

__________________________________

 

 Human tails and pseudotails

May 1984

A case of a tail in a 2-week-old infant is reported, and findings from a review of 33 previously reported cases of true tails and pseudotails are summarized. The true, or persistent, vestigial tail of humans arises from the most distal remnant of the embryonic tail. It contains adipose and connective tissue, central bundles of striated muscle, blood vessels, and nerves and is covered by skin. Bone, cartilage, notochord, and spinal cord are lacking. The true tail arises by retention of structures found normally in fetal development. It may be as long as 13 cm, can move and contract, and occurs twice as often in males as in females. A true tail is easily removed surgically, without residual effects. It is rarely familial. Pseudotails are varied lesions having in common a lumbosacral protrusion and a superficial resemblance to persistent vestigial tails. The most frequent cause of a pseudotail in a series of ten cases obtained from the literature was an anomalous prolongation of the coccygeal vertebrae. Additional lesions included two lipomas, and one each of teratoma, chondromegaly, glioma, and a thin, elongated parasitic fetus.

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0046817784800799

 

__________________________________

 

11 Unbelievable Genetic Accidents, Most Bizarre Birth Defects

Human With 13-inch Tail (Chandre Oram – India)

 

 

This is one of the rarest and trending disorders, human with a 13-inch tail. Chandre Oram (was born on Ram Navami), a tea-estate worker, has become quite an object of devotion in his native Alipurduar, West Bengal. People have lot of faith and believes that Hanuman is manifest in him.

http://www.itervis.com/rare-and-bizarre-birth-defects/11/

 

 

__________________________________

 

 

 

                                                __________________________________

 

                                                 __________________________________

 

 

 

 __________________________________

 

Why are nipples darker than the rest of the skin?

January 14, 2016

It all comes down to puberty and hormones

https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/health-and-families/features/why-are-nipples-darker-rest-skin-a6808631.html

__________________________________



Why Are Genitals Darker Than Other Body Parts?


https://www.insyncmedical.sg/articles/genitals-darker-than-other-body-parts



Could it just be the way God created it? Regardless of one’s skin colour or ethnicity, it has been observed that the human genitals, the male penis, female vulva, nipples and the areola, are darker in colour than other parts of the skin.

This can be explained by:

1. Hormones

2. Friction
Why do hormones cause darkening of our genitals?

If you look at the nipples of a woman who has been pregnant and given birth, you would notice that they are much darker than in a woman who has never been pregnant.

This is because during pregnancy melanin (colour pigment) accumulates in tissues like the nipple in response to an increased levels of estrogen on the body. This colour NEVER returns back to its original after pregnancy and breastfeeding.

At puberty, sex hormones tend to increase in the body. That causes an increase in melanin making the penis, nipples, areolas and labia to darken respectively being the sex organs.
Why does friction cause darkening of the genitals?

When the skin experiences friction, it naturally thickens to protect itself. This is called keratinization. Keratinization is part of the physical barrier formation, in which the keratinocytes (keratin containing cells) produce more and more keratin and they go through process of maturation as they move higher up into the top most layer of the skin. Once fully matured, this layer will shed and peel and will be replaced by layers beneath it.
Keratinocytes not only contain keratin which produces the hardening effect, but they also contain melanin.

How in the world did the melanin from melanocytes get into a keratinocyte?

Well melanocytes make these little pockets of melanin containing balls, called melanosome which are then transferred into the keratinocytes.

You might ask..whatever for does that happen?

The melanosome then park themselves on top of the vital DNA containing nucleus in the keratinocytes. Its sole purpose is protect the DNA from disastrous mutations caused by harmful UV rays.

So in areas where the skin has thickened because of friction, like between the inner thighs, the labia, these are the regions where the skin can look unacceptably darker to you.

With the hairless trend now, many women are regularly shaving or going for Brazilian wax. These hair removal techniques can cause abrasion and ingrown hairs and folliculitis (hair follicle infection) that cause more skin inflammation and increases the production of keratinocytes and hence melanin. You might think these darkened areas reflect poor hygiene or lack of cleaning or scrubbing. Many do not wish to be perceived that why by their sex partners or simply do not like this distinct discolouration of their genitals areas.

Can I get rid on these darkened areas?

Yes!! With Chemical Peels and Laser genital skin whitening .

Chemical peels serve to literally cause a peel to the top most layer of the skin – peeling away the epidermis with the use of chemical like salicylic acid, lactic acid etc. Chemical peels should only be done by a doctor not a therapist. If not done properly it cause cause burns.

The other option is with Lasers like the Fenilift Litescan lasers that are used to create a peel similar to whiten your genital skin.

Bear in mind that there are other medical conditions that cause darkening of the skin in these area too.

    In diabetes and obesity – you can get a velvety dark patch forming around the groin area, the armpits or the neck. This is called Acanthosis Nigricans.

 

_____________________________________

_____________________________________

__________________________________

__________________________________

__________________________________


Section 17: Bones & Genetics

__________________________________

__________________________________

__________________________________

_____________________________________

_____________________________________

Racial differences in the effect of early milk consumption on peak and postmenopausal bone mineral density.

Journal of Bone and Mineral Research : The Official Journal of the American Society for Bone and Mineral Research, 31 Oct 2003, 18(11):1978-1988

https://europepmc.org/article/MED/14606510


__________________________________

 

Differences in bone mineral in young Asian and Caucasian Americans may reflect differences in bone size

October 1996

https://asbmr.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/jbmr.5650111023

 

__________________________________


Racial/ethnic differences in bone mineral density among older women

2012

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4109723/

Abstract

The epidemiologic information regarding international differences in bone mineral density (BMD) in women is currently insufficient. We compared BMD in older women across five racial/ethnic groups in four countries. The femoral neck, total hip, and lumbar spine BMD were measured in women (aged 65–74 years) from the Study of Osteoporotic Fractures (SOF) (5,035 Caucasian women and 256 African American women in the US), the Tobago Women’s Health Study (116 Afro-Caribbean women), the Ms Os Hong Kong Study (794 Hong Kong Chinese women) and the Namwon Study (1,377 South Korean women). BMD was corrected according to the cross-site calibration results for all scanners. When compared with US Caucasian women, the age adjusted mean BMD measurements at the hip sites were 21–31 % higher among Tobago Afro-Caribbean women and 13–23 % higher among African American women. The total hip and spine BMD values were 4–5 % lower among Hong Kong Chinese women and 4–7 % lower among South Korean women compared to US Caucasians. The femoral neck BMD was similar in Hong Kong Chinese women, but higher among South Korean women compared to US Caucasians. Current/past estrogen use was a significant contributing factor to the difference in BMD between US versus non-US women. Differences in body weight partially explained the difference in BMD between Asian versus non-Asian women. These findings show substantial racial/ethnic differences in BMD even within African or Asian origin individuals, and highlight the contributing role of body weight and estrogen use to the geographic and racial/ethnic variation in BMD.

__________________________________




Black-White Differences in Bone Density

2019

https://notpoliticallycorrect.me/2019/06/09/james-thompson-on-black-white-differences-in-bone-density/

The first study is Racial Differences in Bone Density between Young Adult Black and White Subjects Persist after Adjustment for Anthropometric, Lifestyle, and Biochemical Differences (Ettinger et al, 1997). Now, I did reference this article in my own piece on racial differences in drowning, though only to drive home the point that there are racial differences in bone density. Thompson is outright using this article as “evidence” that it is an adaptation.

In any case, Ettinger et al (1997) state that greater bone density in blacks may be due to differences in calciotropic hormones—hormones that play a major role in bone growth and bone remodeling. When compared with whites “black persons have lower urinary calcium excretion, higher 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D (1, 25D) level, and lower 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25D) and osteocalcin level (9)” (Ettinger et al, 1997). They also state that bone density can be affected by calcium intake, physical activity, They also state that testosterone (an androgen) may account for racial and gender differences in bone density, writing “Two studies have demonstrated statistically significantly higher serum testosterone level in young adult black men (22) and women (23).”

Oh, wow. What are refs [22] and [23]? [22] is one of my favorites—Ross et al (1986) (read my response). To be brief, the main problems with Ross et al is that assay times were all over the place, along with it being a small convenience sample of 50 blacks and 50 whites. LabTests Online writes that it is preferred to assay in the morning while in a fasted state. In Ross et al, the assay times were between 10 am and 3 pm, which was a “convenient time” for the students. Along with the fact that the sample was small, this study should not be taken seriously regarding racial differences in testosterone, and, thus, racial differences in bone density.

__________________________________

Growth in Bone Mass and Size—Are Racial and Gender Differences in Bone Mineral Density More Apparent than Real?

May 1998

https://academic.oup.com/jcem/article/83/5/1414/2865107


In this issue of JCEM, Gilsanz and colleagues (1) (see page 1420) present data that give us insight into the racial differences in bone mass, bone size, and bone mineral density (BMD), which may partly contribute to the lower incidence of fractures in blacks than in whites. The work is refreshing reading because of the meticulous attention to study design and the resultant credibility of the observations.

The investigators matched 80 black females and males with 80 whites of the same gender, age, bone age, pubertal stage, height, and weight, and report that: (i) blacks have higher volumetric apparent BMD of the cancellous (trabecular) bone of the vertebral body; (ii) there are no racial differences in femoral midshaft cortical thickness or its true BMD; (iii) blacks have longer legs and a larger femoral midshaft cross-sectional area, but shorter trunk length and vertebral height (despite having the same vertebral cross sectional area).



__________________________________

{Blacks have longer leg bones than whites, black people also have shorter spines than whites, so what does this mean. I would say this would possibly mean that white people would have more upper body strength, while blacks may be faster at running.
One theory I have and other black people have is that many people believe there was a super race of super athletic whites that were much stronger and athletic than certain other white people, especially white people that have watered down genes.
Could this mean that whites many thousands of years ago could have been more athletic or even stronger than today? The problem is that it takes years of training in order to set world records, even some people could have set world records even, but instead they decided to be a couch potato and many people just do not workout}.


__________________________________


Bone density, microarchitecture and strength estimates in white versus African American youth with obesity

September 2020


https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S8756328220302945


__________________________________


Bone density, microarchitecture and stiffness in Caucasian and Caribbean Hispanic postmenopausal American women

September 16, 2014

https://www.nature.com/articles/boneres201416


Abstract

Hispanic Americans of Caribbean origin are a fast-growing subset of the US population, but there are no studies on bone density, microstructure and biomechanical integrity in this minority group. In this study, we aimed to compare Caucasian and Caribbean Hispanic postmenopausal American women with respect to these characteristics. Thirty-three Caribbean Hispanics were age-matched to thirty-three Caucasian postmenopausal women. At the lumbar spine, the Hispanic women had significantly lower areal bone mineral density (aBMD). At the radius by high-resolution peripheral quantitative computed tomography (HR-pQCT), there were minimal differences between Hispanic and Caucasian women. At the tibia, Hispanic women had lower trabecular volumetric bone density and trabecular number, and higher trabecular separation. Individual trabecula segmentation (ITS) analyses indicated that at the tibia, Hispanic women not only had significantly lower bone volume fraction, but also had significantly lower rod bone volume fraction, plate trabecular number, rod trabecular number and lower plate–plate, plate–rod and rod–rod junction densities compared to Caucasian women. The differences in bone quantity and quality contributed to lower whole bone stiffness at the radius, and both whole bone and trabecular bone stiffness at the tibia in Hispanic women. In conclusion, Hispanic women had poorer bone mechanical and microarchitectural properties than Caucasian women, especially at the load-bearing distal tibia.


__________________________________


Bone mass, microarchitecture and strength are influenced byrace/ethnicity in young adult men and women

2017

https://bhsai.org/pubs/Popp_2017_Bone_Mass_Microarchitecture_and_Strength.pdf


__________________________________

 

 Racial Differences in Relative Skeletal Muscle Mass Loss During Diet‐Induced Weight Loss in Women

June 29, 2018

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/oby.22201



Abstract

Objective

It is unclear whether there are race‐specific differences in the maintenance of skeletal muscle during energy restriction. Changes in relative skeletal muscle index (RSMI; limb lean tissue divided by height squared) were compared following (1) diet alone, (2) diet + aerobic training, or (3) diet + resistance training.

Methods

Overweight, sedentary African American (AA; n = 72) and European American (EA; n = 68) women were provided an 800‐kcal/d diet to reduce BMI < 25 kg/m2. Regional fat‐free mass was measured with dual‐energy x‐ray absorptiometry. Steady‐state VO2 and heart rate responses during walking were measured.

Results

AA women had greater RSMI and preserved RSMI during diet alone, while RSMI was significantly reduced among EA women (EA women –3.6% vs. AA women + 1.1%; P < 0.05). Diet + resistance training subjects retained RSMI (EA women + 0.2% vs. AA women + 1.4%; P = 50.05), whereas diet + aerobic training subjects decreased RSMI (EA women –1.4% vs. AA women –1.5%; P < 0.05). Maintenance of RSMI was related to delta walking ease and economy.

Conclusions

Compared with AA women, EA women are less muscular and lose more muscle during weight loss without resistance training. During diet‐induced weight loss, resistance training preserves skeletal muscle, especially among premenopausal EA women. Maintenance of muscle during weight loss associates with better ease and economy of walking.



__________________________________

Ethnic and sex differences in skeletal maturation among the Birth to Twenty cohort in South Africa

Nov 2014

https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Figure3-Mean-curves-by-sex-and-ethnicity-of-radius-ulna-and-short-bones-RUS-bone_fig1_268515436

 

__________________________________

Whole-Body MRI and Ethnic Differences in Adipose Tissue and Skeletal Muscle Distribution in Overweight Black and White Adolescent Boys

2011

https://www.hindawi.com/journals/jobe/2011/159373/


__________________________________

Race and Sex Effects on the Association Between Muscle Strength, Soft Tissue, and Bone Mineral Density in Healthy Elders: The Health, Aging, and Body Composition Study

December 2009

https://asbmr.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1359/jbmr.2001.16.7.1343

 

__________________________________

 

 Osteosarcoma Risk Factors


https://www.cancer.org/cancer/osteosarcoma/causes-risks-prevention/risk-factors.html


A risk factor is anything that affects your chance of getting a disease such as cancer. Different cancers have different risk factors.

Lifestyle-related risk factors such as body weight, physical activity, diet, and tobacco use play a major role in many adult cancers. But these factors usually take many years to influence cancer risk, and they are not thought to play much of a role in childhood cancers, including childhood osteosarcomas. So far, lifestyle-related factors have not been linked to osteosarcomas in adults, either. Still, there are some factors that affect osteosarcoma risk.

Age

The risk of osteosarcoma is highest for those between the ages of 10 and 30, especially during the teenage growth spurt. This suggests there may be a link between rapid bone growth and risk of tumor formation. The risk goes down in middle age, but rises again in older adults (usually over the age of 60). Osteosarcoma in older adults is often linked to another cause, such as a long-standing bone disease.

Height

Children with osteosarcoma are usually tall for their age. This also suggests that osteosarcoma may be related to rapid bone growth.

Gender

Osteosarcoma is more common in males than in females. Females tend to develop it slightly earlier, possibly because they tend to have their growth spurts earlier.

Race/ethnicity

Osteosarcoma is slightly more common in African Americans and Hispanic/Latinos than in whites. 

__________________________________

 

Osteometry of acromion process of adult Nigerians: clinical and forensic implications

2016

https://medcraveonline.com/JABB/osteometry-of-acromion-process-of-adult-nigerians-clinical-and-forensic-implications.html


__________________________________



Bone quality: a determinant for certain risk factors for bone fragility

1993

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8275376/


 Abstract

Low bone quantity alone is insufficient cause for fragility fractures. This paper examines the role of bone quality in the fracture risk associated with age, sex, and race. Aspects of bone quality to be considered are bone architecture, matrix, mineralization, and fatigue damage. The trabecular network becomes progressively disconnected and weaker with age. Death of old osteocytes leads to hypermineralization and brittleness of bone. The stability of bone collagen declines with age, and unremodeled bone accumulates fatigue damage. The lower bone fragility rates in males than in females may be due to a combination of the larger male skeleton, greater cortical bone density after age 60 years, and greater bone turnover which would replace fatigue damaged bone. Fragility fracture rates in American and African blacks are lower than in whites, bone mineral density (BMD) is greater in American but not in African blacks (except for hip BMD), and American blacks have lower and African blacks higher bone turnover compared to whites. In South African blacks, trabeculae are thicker and better connected and trabecular bone undergoes less destructive age changes than in whites. To reconcile the disparate findings in American and African blacks we suggest that both groups have a genetic tendency to greater BMD than whites; American blacks realize this potential and African blacks do not, possibly because of calcium deficiency. Consequent high turnover removes fatigue damage and so improves bone quality. Weight-bearing activity in African blacks may be responsible for good hip bone density and thick trabeculae.

__________________________________

Racial Differences in Bone Strength

2007

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1863580/


__________________________________

Racial differences in rate of decline in bone mass in older men: the Baltimore men's osteoporosis study

2005

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15940377/



__________________________________

Bone density in black and white South African women: contribution of ethnicity, body weight and lifestyle

2014

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25190256/

 

__________________________________

Vertebral fracture prevalence in black and white South African women

2015

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25675880/

 

__________________________________

Differences in Trabecular Microstructure Between Black and White Women Assessed by Individual Trabecular Segmentation Analysis of HR‐pQCT Images

December 13, 2016

https://asbmr.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/jbmr.3060


ABSTRACT

Black women have lower fracture risk compared with white women, which may be partly explained by improved volumetric bone mineral density (vBMD) and bone microarchitecture primarily within the cortical bone compartment. To determine if there are differences in trabecular microstructure, connectivity, and alignment according to race/ethnicity, we performed individual trabecular segmentation (ITS) analyses on high‐resolution peripheral quantitative computed tomography (HR‐pQCT) scans of the distal radius and tibia in 273 peri‐ and postmenopausal black (n = 100) and white (n = 173) women participating in the Study of Women's Health Across the Nation in Boston. Unadjusted analyses showed that black women had greater trabecular plate volume fraction, plate thickness, plate number density, and plate surface area along with greater axial alignment of trabeculae, whereas white women had greater trabecular rod tissue fraction (p < 0.05 for all). Adjustment for clinical covariates augmented these race/ethnicity‐related differences in plates and rods, such that white women had greater trabecular rod number density and rod‐rod connectivity, whereas black women continued to have superior plate structural characteristics and axial alignment (p < 0.05 for all). These differences remained significant after adjustment for hip BMD and trabecular vBMD. In conclusion, black women had more plate‐like trabecular morphology and higher axial alignment of trabeculae, whereas white women had more rod‐like trabeculae. These differences may contribute to the improved bone strength and lower fracture risk observed in black women. © 2016 American Society for Bone and Mineral Research.



__________________________________




Gender and Race/Ethnicity Differences in Lead Dose Biomarkers

 July 2008

https://ajph.aphapublications.org/doi/10.2105/AJPH.2007.118505


Objectives. We sought to identify predictors of lead concentrations in the blood, tibias, and patellae of older adults and to describe differences by gender, race/ethnicity, and other factors that can influence lead toxicokinetics and, thus modify health effects.

Methods. Participants aged 50 to 70 years (N=1140) were randomly identified from selected neighborhoods in Baltimore, Maryland. We measured lead concentrations by anodic stripping voltammetry (in blood) and 109Cd-induced K-shell x-ray fluorescence (in bone). We used multiple linear regression to identify predictors of lead concentrations.

Results. Mean (SD) lead concentrations in blood, tibias, and patellae were 3.5 (2.4) μg/dL, 18.9 (12.5) μg/g, and 6.8 (18.1) μg/g, respectively. Tibia concentrations were 29% higher in African Americans than in Whites (P < .01). We observed effect modification by race/ethnicity on the association of gender and physical activity to blood lead concentrations and by gender on the association of age to tibia lead concentrations. Patella lead concentrations differed by gender; apolipoprotein E genotype modified this relation.

Conclusions. African Americans evidenced a prominent disparity in lifetime lead dose. Women may be at higher risk of release of lead from bone and consequent health effects because of increased bone demineralization with aging.


Lead was widely distributed in the environment from the beginning of the past century until it was removed from most commercial uses in the 1980s. Because of lead’s widespread use, average blood lead concentrations among persons in the general population were estimated to be higher than 20 μg/dL in the 1960s3 and 13 to 15 μg/dL in the late 1970s. In blood, lead has a short clearance half-time of approximately 30 days but collects in bone; in the tibia, the clearance half-time is almost 3 decades.4 Thus, past lead exposure can influence population health in several ways: through its persistence in the environment, persistent or progressive health effects from remote exposures, or accumulation in, and later release from, bone in older adults who were alive during the period of peak population exposure.

Currently, most American adults have low blood lead concentrations, which represent integrated internal (release from bone) and external exposures over an average of the prior 120 days. However, older adults can have moderate to high bone lead concentrations. Tibia lead, with its long clearance half-time, is an estimate of cumulative dose from past exposures. The trabecular bone tissue in the patella is more biologically active and, with a clearance half-time of 3 to 5 years, is an estimate of the bioavailable bone lead pool. Because the metabolism of lead in bone is similar to that of calcium, bone lead can serve as an endogenous source of internal exposure, particularly associated with accelerated demineralization in osteoporosis or aging, resulting in subsequent risk of deposition in critical target organs.

To date, studies of bone lead concentrations have focused on populations in Boston, Massachusetts, or Mexico City, Mexico, with no diversity within studies by race/ethnicity, gender, or socioeconomic status (SES). Although other studies have documented differences in blood lead concentrations by race/ethnicity and SES, these studies did not simultaneously measure bone lead concentrations. No population-based studies have compared the bone lead concentrations of large numbers of African Americans and Whites, and no studies have included participants across the full spectrum of SES. Understanding differences in bone lead concentrations in blood, tibias, and patellae across sociodemographic groups may contribute to an explanation of persistent and widening health disparities. This could lead to interventions to prevent or lessen the health risks associated with lead in late life.

We examined lead concentrations and from our analysis determined predictors of blood, tibia, and patella lead concentrations in a population-based study of community-dwelling urban residents aged 50 to 70 years with diversity by gender, race/ethnicity, and SES.



__________________________________

LEAD POISONING IN IMMIGRANT CHILDREN IN THE UNITED STATES

 July 2008

https://ajph.aphapublications.org/doi/10.2105/AJPH.2008.136861


We commend Tehranifar et al.1 for adding an important piece to the limited literature regarding lead poisoning in immigrant groups: a local, matched comparison group. This study design revealed a startling 11-fold increase in the odds of lead poisoning among children in New York City who had recently lived in another country compared with children who had not, even after adjusting for housing and behavioral characteristics. However, the authors paid less attention to a finding that may actually represent a more pressing public health concern in the United States: even 6 or more months after a child’s last foreign residence, the odds of lead poisoning among children who had resided in a foreign country remained 3 times that of children who had not.

As the authors pointed out, a cross-sectional study design using blood lead measurements is not ideal for addressing the timing and duration of exposure to lead because of the complex physiology of lead in blood and bone. However, despite this limitation, the odds ratio of 3 does suggest that (1) immigrant children may continue to be exposed to high levels of lead once in the United States compared with other children and (2) exposures to lower levels of lead than those considered to be elevated in this study (blood lead levels at 15–20 μg/dL or above) may be alarmingly common among immigrant children in New York City (and probably elsewhere). Recent research indicates that even levels below the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) threshold of 10 μg/dL may be harmful to children’s health.2–4

Longitudinal data will be the key to determining whether children who move to the United States from other countries remain at increased risk for lead exposure. In 2005, the CDC recommended blood lead testing 3 to 6 months after placement in permanent residences for children of refugees aged 6 months to 6 years, in addition to the blood lead testing done soon after arrival in the United States.5 This follow-up testing represents not only an important public health tool for monitoring lead exposure among some groups of newly arrived children, but a potentially rich source of short-term longitudinal data on lead exposure among children who have recently arrived in the United States and who may have been exposed to high levels of lead before immigration.



__________________________________



Population-Level Changes in Folate Intake by Age, Gender, and Race/Ethnicity after Folic Acid Fortification

Accepted: November 24, 2005
Published Online: October 10, 2011

https://ajph.aphapublications.org/doi/full/10.2105/AJPH.2005.067371?utm_source=TrendMD&utm_medium=cpc&utm_campaign=Am_J_Public_Health_TrendMD_0



Analysis Overview

We estimated population distributions of total folate consumption (from food and supplements) by grouping intake levels into categories of 100 μg/day. For each age, gender, and race/ethnicity, we estimated intake frequencies and medians, the percentage of the population taking folic acid–containing supplements, and the proportions of the population taking folate at levels above 200 μg/day, 400 μg/day, and 1000 μg/day. All analyses were performed using SAS version 9.1.3 (SAS Institute Inc, Cary, NC) unless otherwise noted.

Results

Measurement Error Correction

After correcting for measurement error, food folate intake distributions had smaller standard deviations both before and after implementation of the fortification policy. Larger percentages of both gender groups consumed higher levels of food folate after fortification than before, and the distribution modes shifted from approximately 200 μg/day to 300 μg/day.

Total Folate Intake

Total folate intake distributions before and after the fortification policy, corrected for measurement error, are shown in Figure 1 according to gender and race/ethnicity. The distributions shifted to the right (higher intake levels) after fortification for all population subgroups. The mean increases were larger for Whites than for Blacks and Mexican Americans.

Median total folate intakes for before and after fortification are shown in Figure 2 according to age, gender, and race/ethnicity. Median folate intake for all Whites increased by more than 100 μg/day after fortification. All women of reproductive age increased their median intake by at least 100 μg/day. Among Blacks and Mexican Americans, the median intake among persons aged 65 years or older either increased by less than 100 μg/ day (Black men and women), or decreased (Mexican American men and women) following fortification.

The effect of survey period (i.e., pre- vs postfortification) on the log of total daily folate consumption was significant (P < .0001) in a multiple linear regression model with control for age, age-squared, gender, race/ ethnicity, and significant interactions.

Threshold Estimates

Table 1 shows the percentage of women of childbearing age who consumed more than 200 μg/day and 400 μg/day of total folate, and the percentage of older people who consumed more than 1000 μg/day. The within-person variation in food folate intake is shown, as well as the threshold estimates with and without the correction for this variation. Overall, Whites were reaching all thresholds in greater proportions than were Blacks and Mexican Americans; Blacks were least likely to have had intakes above these levels.

The FDA’s goal to have 50% of women of childbearing age consume at least 400 μg/ day of folate has not been met for any racial/ ethnic group, but the percentages have significantly increased since fortification. At 30% prefortification and 39% postfortification, more White women have reached the 400 μg/day threshold than have Black women (20% pre, 26% post) and Mexican-American women (17% pre, 28% post), both before and after fortification. There were also large increases in the percentage of women of all races/ethnicities who are consuming more than 200 μg/day of total folate: approximately 90% for both Whites and Mexican Americans, and 70% for Blacks. This represents an almost 100% increase for Mexican Americans.

Among people aged 65 years or older who may be at higher risk for B12 deficiency, the proportions of the population who consumed more than 1000 μg/day after fortification increased for White men and women and Black men, decreased for Mexican-American men and women, and remained constant for Black women. Corrected for measurement error, only 1%–4% of persons aged 65 and older were at high risk for masking after fortification.

Supplemental Folate Intake

Figure 3 shows the percentage of men and women who take supplements that contain folic acid before and after fortification. More Whites took supplements containing folic acid than did Blacks and Mexican Americans, more people older than 44 years took supplements than did younger people, and more than half of the subgroups showed postfortification decreases in the proportion of people taking supplements. For all women of childbearing age, fewer people were taking supplements after fortification than before; the same result was found for Mexican American men of all ages. The largest absolute change was among Mexican American men older than 64 years, for whom the percentage taking supplements decreased by more than 50% after fortification. In a logistic regression model, the effect of survey period (i.e., pre- vs postfortification) on consumption of folic acid supplements was found to be significant, and the effect was modified by age (P < .0001) and race/ ethnicity (P < .05). The model controls for age, age-squared, gender, race/ethnicity, and significant interactions.



__________________________________

Racial differences in the in vivo percutaneous absorption of some organic compounds: a comparison between black, Caucasian and Asian subjects

January 1993

https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00373356


__________________________________

Evaluation of skin absorption of drugs from topical and transdermal formulations

2016

https://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1984-82502016000300527

 

__________________________________

Association between being African-American, serum urate levels and the risk of developing hyperuricemia: findings from the Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults cohort

January 6, 2012

https://arthritis-research.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/ar3552


__________________________________


Racial Differences in Serum Selenium Concentration: Analysis of US Population Data from the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey

June 08, 2007

https://academic.oup.com/aje/article/166/3/280/116687


__________________________________



Serum Urate, Ethnicity, and Hypertension as Predictors of Gout Risk

May 29, 2018

 

 

 

While serum urate is known to be a strong predictor of gout, a new study indicates ethnicity and hypertension independently and additively increase the risk of incident gout.

https://www.rheumatologynetwork.com/view/serum-urate-ethnicity-and-hypertension-predictors-gout-risk


__________________________________


Racial Differences in Gout Incidence in a Population-Based Cohort: Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities Study

2013

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3927975/


__________________________________


RACIAL DIFFERENCES  IN THE INCIDENCE OF GOUT

1995

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/art.1780380508


__________________________________


Racial/Ethnic and Gender Differences in the Relationship between Uric Acid and Metabolic Syndrome in Adolescents: An Analysis of NHANES 1999–2006

2011

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3262070/


__________________________________


Correlation nutritional status with uric acid level in Minangkabau men ethnicity

2019

https://www.msjonline.org/index.php/ijrms/article/view/5685


__________________________________


Preterm Birth Is Associated with Higher Uric Acid Levels in Adolescents

2015

https://www.jpeds.com/article/S0022-3476(15)00344-3/pdf


__________________________________


Racial/ethnic and sex differences in the relationship between uric acid and metabolic syndrome in adolescents: an analysis of National Health and Nutrition Survey 1999-2006

2012

https://www.metabolismjournal.com/article/S0026-0495(11)00283-6/abstract


__________________________________

Relationship Between Race, Uric Acid Levels, Urate-Lowering Therapy and Resource Use in Patients with Gout

https://acrabstracts.org/abstract/relationship-between-race-uric-acid-levels-urate-lowering-therapy-and-resource-use-in-patients-with-gout/


__________________________________

Does gout have a racial predilection?

Feb 03, 2020

https://www.medscape.com/answers/329958-10243/does-gout-have-a-racial-predilection

Gout has an increased prevalence in some populations but is rare in others. For example, the frequency of gout is higher in populations such as the Chamorros and Maori and in the Blackfoot and Pima tribes. Many Maori and other Polynesian women have a genetic defect in renal urate handling that places them at risk for hyperuricemia and gout. However, racial differences may at least in part reflect differences in diet, which has a large influence on the clinical expression of gout...


__________________________________


Racial and Gender Disparities Among Patients with Gout

2013

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/234124243_Racial_and_Gender_Disparities_Among_Patients_with_Gout


__________________________________


Uric acid and the state of the intrarenal renin-angiotensin systemin humans

2004

https://www.kidney-international.org/article/S0085-2538(15)50213-5/pdf

__________________________________

 

Ethnicity-Related Skeletal Muscle Differences Across the Lifespan

2010

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2795070/

Abstract

Despite research and clinical significance, limited information is available on the relations between skeletal muscle (SM) and age in adults, specifically among Hispanics, African Americans (AA), and Asians. The aim was to investigate possible sex and ethnic SM differences in adults over an age range of 60 years. Subjects were 468 male and 1280 female adults (≥18 years). SM was estimated based on DXA-measured appendicular lean-soft tissue using a previously reported prediction equation. Locally weighted regression smoothing lines were fit to examine SM trends and to localize age cutoffs; piecewise multiple linear regression models were then applied, controlling for weight and height, to identify age cutoffs for sex-specific changes in SM among the ethnic groups. The age of 27 years was identified for women and men as the cut-off after which SM starts to show a negative association with age. Both sexes had a similar ethnic pattern for expected mean SM at the age cutoff, with AA presenting the highest SM values, followed by Whites, Hispanics, and Asians. After the age cutoffs, the lowering of SM differed by ethnicity and sex: AA women showed the greatest SM lowering whereas Hispanic women had the least. Hispanic men tended to show a higher negative association of SM with age followed by AA and Whites. To conclude, significant sex and ethnic differences exist in the magnitude of negative associations of SM with age >27 years. Further studies using a longitudinal design are needed to explore the associations of ethnicity-related decline of SM with health risks.

 

_____________________________________

_____________________________________

__________________________________

__________________________________

__________________________________


Section 18: Knees, Legs & Genetics

__________________________________

__________________________________

__________________________________

_____________________________________

_____________________________________

Racial and ethnic differences in older adults with knee osteoarthritis

2015

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4077911/


 __________________________________

 

Association between general joint hypermobility and knee, hip, and lumbar spine osteoarthritis by race: a cross-sectional study


April 2018

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5907300/

Abstract

 

Background

 

Osteoarthritis (OA) prevalence differs by race. General joint hypermobility (GJH) may be associated with OA, but differences by race are not known. This community-based study examined the frequency of GJH and its relationship with knee, hip, and lumbar spine OA by race (African American vs. Caucasian).

 

Methods

 

Data were from the Johnston County OA project, collected 2003–2010. GJH was defined as Beighton score ≥4. OA symptoms were defined as the presence of pain, aching, or stiffness on most days separately at the knee, hip, and lower back. Radiographic OA (rOA) of the knee or hip was defined as Kellgren-Lawrence grade 2–4. Lumbar spine rOA was disc space narrowing grade ≥1 and osteophyte grade ≥2 in ≥ 1 at the same lumbar level. Lumbar spine facet rOA was present in ≥ 1 lumbar levels. Separate logistic regression models stratified by race were used to examine the association between hypermobility and rOA or OA symptoms at each joint site, adjusting for age, sex, previous joint injury, and body mass index (BMI).

 

Results

 

Of 1987 participants, 1/3 were African-American and 2/3 were women (mean age 65 years, mean BMI 31 kg/m²). Nearly 8% of Caucasians were hypermobile vs. 5% of African-Americans (p = 0.03). Hypermobility was associated with lower back symptoms in Caucasians (adjusted odds ratio (aOR) 1.54, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.00, 2.39), but not in African-Americans (aOR 0.77, 95% CI 0.34, 1.72). Associations between hypermobility and other knee, hip, or lumbar spine/facet OA variables were not statistically significant.

 

Conclusions

 

General joint hypermobility was more common in Caucasians than African-Americans. Although there were no associations between hypermobility and rOA, the association between hypermobility and lower back symptoms may differ by race.

 

 __________________________________

 

 Defining Ethnic and Racial Differences in Osteoporosis and Fragility Fractures

2011

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3111798/

Abstract

Background

Osteoporotic fractures are a major public health issue. The literature suggests there are variations in occurrence of fractures by ethnicity and race.

Questions/purposes

My purpose is to review current literature related to the influence of ethnicity and race on the epidemiology of fracture; prevalence of osteoporosis by bone mineral density; consequences of osteoporotic hip fracture; differences in risk fracture for fracture; and disparities in screening, diagnosis, and treatment of osteoporosis.

Methods

Current literature was selectively reviewed related to osteoporosis, ethnicity, and race.

Results

Ethnicity and race, like sex, influence the epidemiology of fractures, with highest fracture rates in white women. Bone mineral density is higher in African Americans; however, these women are more likely to die after hip fracture, have longer hospital stays, and are less likely to be ambulatory at discharge. Consistent risk factors for fracture across ethnicity include older age, lower bone mineral density, previous history of fracture, and history of two or more falls. Ethnic and racial disparities exist in the screening, diagnosis, and treatment of osteoporosis.

Conclusions

Across ethnic and racial groups, more women experience fractures than the combined number of women who experience breast cancer, myocardial infarction, and coronary death in 1 year. Prevention efforts should target all women, irrespective of their race/ethnicity, especially if they have multiple risk factors.


 __________________________________

Defining Ethnic and Racial Differences in Osteoporosis and Fragility Fractures

2011

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3111798/

 

 __________________________________


Chapter 26 - Race, Ethnicity, and Osteoporosis

2013

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780124158535000261


Abstract

Ethnicity and race are important factors influencing the incidence of osteoporosis. Highest fracture rates are found among white women. Rates in black women are about 50% lower than white women with rates in Hispanic and Asian women generally about 25% lower than rates in white women. Gender differences in fractures rates are greatest among Whites. Areal bone mineral density (aBMD) is highest among black women and it is estimated that about one-third of the lower fracture rates in black women may be accounted for by their higher bone mineral density (BMD). aBMD is also higher in Hispanic women compared to white women. Asian and white women have similar aBMD but some data suggest that volumetric BMD and cortical thickness is greater in Asians than Whites, which may contribute to their lower fracture rates. Ethnic differences in hip geometry, such as, hip axis length, also contributes to differences in fracture rates. There is, however, consistency of risk factors for fracture across ethnicity including older age, lower aBMD, previous history of fracture, and history of two or more falls. In addition, women with the greatest number of risk factors have the highest risk of fracture irrespective of ethnicity. Across ethnic and racial groups, more women experience fractures than the combined number of women who experience invasive breast cancer, coronary heart disease, or stroke in 1 year. There is also evidence that outcomes of fracture differ by ethnicity. Despite lower hip fracture rates, black women are more likely to die after their hip fracture, have longer hospital stays, and are less likely to be ambulatory at hospital discharge. Ethnic and racial disparities exist in the screening, diagnosis, and treatment of osteoporosis. Prevention efforts should target all women, especially, if they have multiple risk factors.


 __________________________________

 5 Amazing Finds Beneath the Sands of the Sahara

2016

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SpSI-dsEk3k

3:50 - Skeletons of Niger

The skulls of Kiffians were darker and had larger eye sockets than Tenerians, the bones of Kiffians were denser and more rigid.

 __________________________________

 

Differences in Bone Mineral Density between Adult Vegetarians and Nonvegetarians Become Marginal when Accounting for Differences in Anthropometric Factors

13 February 2020

https://academic.oup.com/jn/article-abstract/150/5/1266/5735637?redirectedFrom=fulltext

 __________________________________

Ethnic Differences in Bone Mass—Clinical Implications

2012

https://academic.oup.com/jcem/article/97/12/4329/2536344


 __________________________________

Prevalence and Impact of Arthritis By Race and Ethnicity -- United States, 1989-1991

May 10, 1996

https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/00041424.htm

 

 __________________________________

White Men Can’t Jump?

Dec 05, 2008

https://slate.com/technology/2008/12/race-genes-and-sports.html



Race, genes, and sports.


A few days ago, I wrote about a test, now being marketed in the United States, that predicts whether your toddler has more potential as a power athlete or as an endurance athlete. The test examines ACTN3, a gene that affects fast generation of muscular force. Fray poster Andrea Freiboden isn’t impressed. “What a lot of crap. Just look at the race of the athlete,” she writes:

    Generally, people of West African origin have more fast twitch muscles which allow intense bursts of power. This is why running backs, defensive linemen, and receivers are almost all black. We don’t need any expensive test. All you have to do is look at the physique. Blacks in basketball are lean and musularly [sic] hard. Whites have softer muscles, which is why white basketball players have to rely more on skill than blacks who have the advantage of skill + great speed/strength.

Oy. I’ve been through this wringer before. It’s true that some racial averages differ in part for biological reasons. It’s also true that that this is one of them. But Freiboden is exactly wrong. Race is a less, not more, reliable gauge of physical characteristics than genes are. In fact, that’s one of the chief consolations of nontherapeutic genetic testing: No matter how inaccurate genes are as a predictor of this or that ability, they’re more accurate than predictions based on race. And the sooner we get past judging by race, the better.

ACTN3 has two key variants: R and X. To recap:

    Roughly speaking, the more copies of the R variant you have, as opposed to the X variant, the more likely you are to excel at sports requiring power or speed. (You can be RR, RX, or XX.) The testing company, Atlas Sports Genetics, cites studies that support this pattern. A 2003 analysis of hundreds of athletes who had represented Australia at international meets found that 53 percent of the male competitors in sprinting or power events were RR—nearly twice the prevalence of this genotype in a less-athletic population sample. None of the 35 female sprinters were XX. Nor were any of the 25 male Olympic sprinters. Subsequent studies show the same basic pattern in Finland, Greece, and Russia.

Few genes are known to be decisive in determining life outcomes. Nutrition, training, and other genes matter. But the evidence that this gene significantly influences athletic ability is strong.

Now look at the frequency of the R and X variants in different populations. According to data published seven years ago in Human Molecular Genetics, the relative frequency of the X allele is 0.52 in Asians, 0.42 in whites, 0.27 in African-Americans, and 0.16 in Africans. If you break out the data further, the frequency of the XX genotype is 0.25 in Asians, 0.20 in European whites, 0.13 in African-Americans, and 0.01 in African Bantu. Conversely, the frequency of RR (the genotype for speed and power) is 0.25 in Asians, 0.36 in European whites, 0.60 in African-Americans, and 0.81 in African Bantu. Among Asians, you can expect to find one RR for every XX. Among whites, you can expect nearly two RRs for every XX. Among African-Americans, you can expect more than four RRs for every XX.

So, yes, all other things being equal, you can expect this gene to cause Africans and African-Americans to be disproportionately represented at the highest levels of speed and power sports. And you can expect the opposite for Asians. But contrary to Freiboden’s claim, you can’t expect what we actually find in, say, basketball. Five years ago, 77 percent of NBA players were black; only 21 percent were white. According to a study reported last year, black players earned 83 percent of the league’s court time. Now contrast that with genetic and population data. Compared with whites, black Americans aren’t even twice as likely to be RR, and they’re more than half as likely to be XX. Furthermore, among American men aged 20 to 35, there are about five times as many whites as blacks. In sum, blacks are about twice as dominant in the NBA as ACTN3 alone would predict. Something else must be going on: culture, resources, differential treatment, other genes … you name it.

Basketball has lots of confounding factors. It favors height, stamina, and court vision in addition to speed. So, let’s look at a sport where explosive force alone is decisive: sprinting. Several years ago, Jon Entine, the author of Taboo, summarized the data:

    There are no sprinters of note from Asia, even with more than 50 percent of the world’s population, a Confucian and Tao tradition of discipline, and an authoritarian sports system in place in the most populous country, China. No white sprinter can be found on the list of 100-meter sprinters; the best time by a white, 10 seconds, ranks more than 200th on the all-time list. … All of the 32 finalists in the last four Olympic men’s 100-meter races are of West African descent. The likelihood of that happening based on population numbers alone—blacks from that region, now living around the globe, represent approximately 8 percent of the world’s population—is 0.0000000000000000000000000000000001 percent.

Note the distinction: West Africans dominate sprinting. East Africans do better at distance running. So already, the evidence points beyond race toward a more precise category: population. And with ACTN3, we’re beginning to advance from population comparisons toward the salient level of analysis: genes. Remember, as we noted about ACTN3 in general, differences at the elite level probably exceed differences among the rest of us. But they’re still real.

I’ve had my share of arguments with people who deny that race is biologically meaningful. Many of them are dedicated to the proposition that all humans are created equal, not just in the sense of moral worth or treating each person on his merits, but literally, in the sense that no genetically based difference can be admitted in average ability between populations. That kind of egalitarian literalism—I call it liberal creationism—becomes harder and harder to sustain in the face of evidence such as the data on ACTN3.

On the other hand, those of us who accept such differences must understand them accurately and describe them responsibly. As Fray poster Njuzu puts it, “Race is a very inexact and unreliable proxy for genetics.” Race is not a causal unit. There’s no such thing as having fast-twitch muscle fiber because you’re black. The causal unit is a gene, or a network of genes, or a network of genes and environmental factors. Being black only makes you more likely to have a genetic variant that makes you more likely to have extra fast-twitch fiber. That’s a lot of “likelies,” not certainties. And you can eliminate part of the uncertainty by testing for ACTN3, which takes you past the crudeness of race to the relative precision of genetics. I’m not exactly thrilled about a world in which kids’ futures are projected from being RR or XX. But it’s a hell of a lot better than a world in which they’re projected from being black or white.




 __________________________________

   


Do Race, Ethnicity, and Geographic Location influence rate of Knee Arthroplasty?

2005

https://www.hopkinsarthritis.org/arthritis-news/do-race-ethnicity-and-geographic-location-influence-the-rate-of-knee-arthroplasty/



 __________________________________



Racial and ethnic differences in older adults with knee osteoarthritis

2014

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24729357/




 __________________________________

 

 Ethnic differences in bone geometry and strength are apparent in childhood

June 2009

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/24427702_Ethnic_differences_in_bone_geometry_and_strength_are_apparent_in_childhood

Abstract

 

Ethnic differences in bone strength and structure likely contribute to the disparity in fracture rates, however few studies have assessed bone structure in multiethnic cohorts of children. The purpose of this study was to investigate ethnic differences in bone strength in childhood and to characterize the structural bases for these differences. Peripheral quantitative computed tomography (pQCT 3000, Orthometrix) was used to assess bone parameters at the radius and tibia in Caucasian (CA, n=21), African American (AA, n=23), and Hispanic (HI, n=29) children (10.9+/-0.1 yrs). At the distal site (8%), we measured compressive bone strength (BSI), trabecular and total bone density, and total bone area. Polar strength-strain index, total and cortical bone area, and cortical density were assessed at the midshaft (50%). Muscle cross-sectional area (CSA) and fat CSA were measured at the tibia (66%) and the radius (50%). Physical activity and calcium intake were assessed by questionnaire. Analysis of covariance was used to compare bone outcomes among ethnic groups adjusting for age, sex, limb length and muscle CSA. Age, BMI, and body composition were similar among the 3 groups, however AA children were taller and had longer bone length. At all sites, AA and HI children had higher bone strength (SSIp and BSI +10-37%) than CA children due mainly to greater bone tissue density (2-18%>CA) at the distal sites of the radius and tibia. The greater bone strength at the midshaft was due to both a higher bone density (2-5%) and greater bone area than CA (7-18%). AA and HI children have significantly higher bone strength than CA children, due to greater bone volumetric density and greater cortical area. AA and HI children also have higher bone strength relative to load. These observations suggest that ethnic differences in bone strength manifest in childhood.

 __________________________________

Racial differences in bone density

May 29, 2017

https://www.tremr.com/Duck-Rabbit/racial-differences-in-bone-density

 

 __________________________________

The Effect of Sex, Age and Ethnicity on Craniofacial Bone Mineral Density

September 2014

https://e-space.mmu.ac.uk/582261/1/Susanna%20CrawfordPhDThesisWithChanges13-01-15.pdf

 __________________________________

Racial differences in femoral dimensions and their relation to hip fracture

January 1996

https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF01626533

 

 __________________________________

Racial Variation in the Proximal and Distal Femur: Heritability and Forensic Utility

August 2001

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/11890726_Racial_Variation_in_the_Proximal_and_Distal_Femur_Heritability_and_Forensic_Utility


 __________________________________

Anterior femoral curvature: Its probable basis and utility as a criterion of racial assessment

1976

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ajpa.1330450326

 

  __________________________________

ANTERIOR FEMORAL CURVATURE REVISITED: RACE ASSESSMENT FROM THE FEMUR

1996

https://ufdcimages.uflib.ufl.edu/AA/00/03/92/64/00001/anteriorfemoralc00trud.pdf


 __________________________________

Racial Variation in the Proximal and Distal Femur: Heritability and Forensic Utility

2000

https://www.astm.org/DIGITAL_LIBRARY/JOURNALS/FORENSIC/PAGES/JFS15049J.htm


 __________________________________


An Evaluation of Metric Methods of Race Differentiation in the Human Pelvic Girdle for the Application of Expert Witness Human Pelvic Girdle for the Application of Expert Witness Testimony Testimony

2014

https://aquila.usm.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1076&context=masters_theses

 __________________________________

Covariation in Limb-limb and Limb-trunk Proportions in Whites and Blacks and Males in Females using the Hamann-Todd Collection, Cleveland Museum of Natural History

2008

http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/812/3/covariation-in-limb-limb-and-limb-trunk-proportions-in-whites-and-blacks-and-males-in-females-using-the-hamann-todd-collection-cleveland-museum-of-natural-history

DISCUSSION

Most of the significant differences in limb and trunk between groups are based on racial affiliation rather than sexual dimorphism. Males have significantly longer arms (both proximal and distal) relative to stature than females. Females have shorter upper arms relative to thighs than males. There is no significant difference between Blacks and Whites in terms of femur relative to stature. Blacks have longer upper arms and shins relative to stature than Whites. Blacks also have longer thighs relative to upper arms than Whites. Whites have longer trunks relative to stature compared to Blacks in both the thoracic region and the lumbar region. Whites also have longer proximal limb segments relative to distal limb segments than Blacks.

These ̳racial' differences were to be expected as they coincide with Bergmann's (1847) and Allen's (1877) rules. Bergmann's Rule states that within a single species, smaller-bodied organisms will be in the warmer climates and larger-bodied organisms will be in the colder climates. Allen's rule is similar, but adds that organisms with longer extremities (limbs) will be found in warmer climates and organisms with shorter extremities will be found in colder climates. Taken together, people with a smaller surface area, or SA, (Allen's rule) to body mass, or BM, (Bergmann's rule) ratio will be in colder climates and people with a larger SA/BM ratio will be in warmer climates (Ruff, 1994). The evolutionary adaptation behind this phenomenon is to increase heat retention in colder climates and increased heat loss (TaylorWeale and Vinicius, 2007). Paleooanthropological research has shown that humans have adapted to colder climates in Europe within the Upper Paleolithic. In the beginning, Europeans had longer limbs relative to stature than in modern-day European populations (Ruff, 2002). In the Hamann-Todd collection, my sample is consistent with this phenomenon; American Blacks retain the body proportions for a warmer climate and American Whites retain the body proportions for a colder climate. The Whites have longer trunks and shorter limbs relative to stature, and shorter arms relative to trunks than the Blacks. Blacks also have longer distal limb segments relative to trunk length. There is no significant difference in the ratios between total limb length (upper and lower) and stature, or trunk length, in either males and females, or among Blacks and Whites. The significant difference lies in the distal limb segments, which are longer in Blacks than Whites.

There is a significant correlation between all of the long bones and stature within each subgroup and within the entire sample as a whole. Overall, the femur is the best predictor of stature. This is to be expected since the T-test indicated that there was no significant difference in the femur-stature ratio between either Blacks and Whites, or males and females. Thus, the femur tends to have a stable relationship with stature across sex and population boundaries. In females, the best predictor of stature is the humerus. The humerus is not the worst predictor of stature in males, but it is worse in males than in females. The T-test indicated that there was not a significant difference in the ratio of humerus-stature on the basis of race, but there is a significant difference on the basis of sex. Women have shorter humeri than men, but the humerus has a more stable relationship to stature in females than in males. In Black females, both the femur and the humerus, taken independently, are the best predictors of stature. In White females, the tibia is the best predictor. In Black and White males, the femur is the best predictor. In Blacks, the femur, tibia, and humerus all equally predict stature the best. In Whites, the femur alone is the best. The lumbar region is significantly correlated to stature in each group, except for Black males, which suggests that Black males have higher variability in the length of the lumbar region. The thoracic region is significantly correlated in Blacks and Whites, the sample as a whole, and among White males. White males have the least amount of variability in the thoracic region, and there is a significant correlation with ancestral populations as opposed to sexual dimorphism.

When determining the best Trotter and Gleser (1952) equation to estimate stature, different statistical analyses yield different results. ̳Best' can be defined as the highest r value in least squares regression, and the value closest to zero in the calculation of bias. The least squares regression analysis indicates that the equation using the humerus is the best estimate in Black females, the fibula in White females, and the femur in both Black and White males. However, when deciding based upon the value for bias, the ulna is the best for Black females, the humerus is the best for White female and Black males, and the radius is the best for White males. The similarities between the correlation values and preferred equation indicate that for the specified bone, the sample that Trotter and Gleser measured represents the sample that I measured in the hierarchy of correlation. However, the T-test indicates that there is significant difference between the true stature and estimated stature in for all subgroups except Whites and males. The formulae provided by Trotter and Gleser underestimate stature for every bone in each subgroup, except for the humerus and radius in White males. For the average of every equation used, Trotter and Gleser underestimate stature in every sub-group; the least amount in White males and the most in Black females. Thus, it can be inferred that the original sample used by Trotter and Gleser is most similar to the Hamann-Todd sample I measured in White males, and least similar in Black females.

There are several limitations to the results of this study. First, the accuracy of stature measured by Todd may be invalid because the measurements were conducted on cadavers and not living individuals. Although Dupertuis and Hadden (1951) consider the measurement of cadavers to be equivalent to living stature, there is no way of knowing the stature in life of the persons in the Hamann-Todd collection to compare the two. Stature is a dynamic trait that varies throughout the day and throughout life. At the end of puberty, long bones have a constant relationship to each other. The length of the vertebral column decreases with age due to gravity putting force on the intervertebral disks as well as arthritis decreasing the angle between adjacent vertebrae. The end result is that the back hunches and stature is shorter. Therefore, to qualify stature as one measurement may not validly describe overall stature. Although I tried to minimize this effect as best as possible, it is unknown whether or not it was completely controlled for in the study.

Second, there is questionable reliability and validity in the assessment of race. Racial classification was assigned based upon observations of colloquial traits on dead bodies; that is to say that different observers may disagree on the racial assignment of a particular individual. Even if every American were to agree upon the racial classification of a specimen, there still remains the fact that the ancestry is not known and any conclusions based on population variation would be skewed. Many American Blacks have mixed ancestry, even though they consider themselves to be exclusively Black. The Whites included in this study come from a mixed European ancestry. The definition of White or Black depends upon the decision of Todd in the early 1900's. This is the problem with any study in regional variation, and its limitations have an effect on this study.

Thirdly, this study excludes ̳abnormal' amounts of vertebrae. Many people have extra vertebra or may be missing a certain number. The present study considers only those who have twelve thoracic vertebrae and 5 lumbar. The results may be different if individuals with ̳abnormal' amounts were included.

Lastly, the individuals in this study lived in the early 1900's and much secular change may have taken effect between then and now. Therefore, this study may not be applicable to a modern-day population or to a population outside of Cleveland, Ohio.

_____________________________________

_____________________________________

__________________________________

__________________________________

__________________________________


Section 19: Legs & Genetics

__________________________________

__________________________________

__________________________________

_____________________________________

_____________________________________

Do Black People Have An Extra Muscle? Know The Facts

March 13, 2020

https://www.mybeautygym.com/do-black-people-have-an-extra-muscle/


Do Black People Have an Extra Muscle?

Here’s the answer, and the facts related to it.

No, black people at birth don’t have an extra muscle.

Black babies have the same number of bones and muscles as that of any race. They have also 300 bones (206 bones later on in adult life), and three types of muscles at birth: the skeletal muscles, the cardiac muscles and the smooth muscles; more than 640 muscles, up to 850.

However, there are vital factors that contribute to the black’s dominance in sports.

1. Speed in Baby’s Growth

An observation by journalist John Entine, disclosed – among other things – that black babies develop faster than white babies, but an extensive and empirical study under controlled environment has yet to be done to ultimately confirm this report.
2. Local Evolutionary Factors and Environment

The local evolutionary factors and environment in which most black people grew up in have shaped their body types.

A simple example is this: a child growing in the suburbs of Kenya will have more developed and toned muscles than a normal child in Europe because of his daily activities.

The black child would be:

    Attending school on foot amidst mountainous regions and inclement weather
    Helping with the heavy household chores, such as chopping woods, carrying heavy loads of water
    Running errands on foot amidst environmental impediments and nutritional deficiencies
    Performing other strenuous tasks that tend to strengthen the body’s muscles and develop endurance

On the other hand, the child in America, or Europe, would ride a car to school, do light housework or none at all, and would perform tasks that require little use of his muscles.

Who do you think would perform better in sprinting? Naturally, the black kid.
3. Culture and The Nature

Culture and the nature also contribute to a person’s body development. It’s the culture in most African countries that children participate actively in rearing the family. Therefore, at an early age, they tend to hone their muscles endurance.
4. Presence of More ‘Fast-Twitch’ Muscle Fibers in Blacks

According to Claude Bouchard, a geneticist, who studied fast-twitch and slow-twitch muscle fibers, West African students had more of the larger fast-twitch fibers than the slow-twitch.

The fast-twitch fiber was associated with speed of movement and the adaptation of the individual to endurance training. This finding can support the supposition that genetics has indeed something to do with the black people’s incredible muscle endurance and strength.
5. Thigh Muscles in Kenyans Have More Blood Capillaries


 __________________________________


Impact of race/ethnicity and socioeconomic status on risk-adjusted hospital readmission rates following hip and knee arthroplasty

2016

https://jhu.pure.elsevier.com/en/publications/impact-of-raceethnicity-and-socioeconomic-status-on-risk-adjusted


 __________________________________



Morphometry of the adult human dry hip bone in Kashmiri population

October 2018

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/328524935_Morphometry_of_the_adult_human_dry_hip_bone_in_Kashmiri_population



 __________________________________




Giant prehistoric caiman had extra hip bone to carry its weight

December 17, 2019

https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-50827002

 

 __________________________________

Sex Differences of the Hip Bone Among Several Populations

1981

https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/ofaj1936/58/4-6/58_265/_pdf


 __________________________________


Astronauts On International Space Station Lose Alarming Amounts Of Hipbone Strength

January 29, 2009

Summary:
    Astronauts spending months in space lose significant bone strength, making them increasingly at risk for fractures later in life.

https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/01/090126121350.htm


 __________________________________

Differences between race and sex in measures of hip morphology: a population-based comparative study

February 2020

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1063458419312737

Summary 

Objective

 

This paper aims to (i) identify differences in measures of hip morphology between four racial groups using anteroposterior (AP) hip x-rays, and (ii) examine whether these differences vary by sex.

 

Methods

 

912 hip x-rays (456 individuals) from four racial groups (European Caucasians, American Caucasians, African Americans and Chinese) were obtained. Males and females (45–75 years) with no radiographic hip OA (Kellgren and Lawrence < Grade 2 or Croft < Grade 1) were included. Eleven features of hip joint morphology were analysed. Linear regression with generalised estimating equations (GEE) was used to determine race and sex differences in hip morphology. Post-hoc Bonferroni procedure was used to adjust for multiple comparisons.

 

Results

 

The final analysis included 875 hips. Chinese hips showed significant differences for the majority of measures to other racial groups. Chinese were characterised by more shallow and narrow acetabular sockets, reduced femoral head coverage, smaller femoral head diameter, and a lesser angle of alignment between the femoral neck and shaft. Variation was found between other racial groups, but with few statistically significant differences. The average of lateral centre edge angle, minimum neck width and neck length differed between race and sex (p-value for interaction < 0.05).

 

Conclusions

 

Significant differences were found in measures of morphology between Chinese hips compared to African Americans or Caucasian groups; these may explain variation in hip OA prevalence rates between these groups and the lower rate of hip OA in Chinese. Sex differences were also identified, which may further explain male-female prevalence differences for OA.

 __________________________________



Racial differences in hip axis lengths might explain racial differences in rates of hip fracture

July 1994

https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF01623243

Abstract

 

Compared with white women, Asian women have about a 40%–50% and blacks a 50%–60% lower risk of hip fracture, but the reason for this racial difference is not known. Women with a shorter hip axis have a lower risk of hip fracture. To test the hypothesis that a shorter hip axis length could account for the lower risk of hip fracture among Asian and black women, we measured hip axis length in 135 Caucasian, 74 Asian and 50 black women. The mean hip axis lengths of Asian and black women were significantly shorter (1.2 and 0.7 standard deviations, respectively) than that of the whites (p<0.0001). We estimate that, compared with white women, Asians would have a 47% lower risk (95% confidence interval: 32%–63%) and blacks would have a 32% (15%–45%) lower risk of hip fracture because of their shorter hip axis. We conclude that a shorter hip axis length might be a major factor accounting for Asian women's lower risk of hip fracture and might contribute to the lower risk in black women.

 __________________________________

Differences between race and sex in measures of hip morphology: a population-based comparative study

2019

https://www.oarsijournal.com/article/S1063-4584(19)31273-7/pdf


 __________________________________



Racial and Ethnic Differences in Hip Fracture Outcomes in Men

September 13, 2017

https://www.ajmc.com/view/racial-and-ethnic-differences-in-hip-fracture-outcomes-in-men

 

ABSTRACT

Objectives: To examine temporal trends and racial/ethnic differences in hip fracture incidence and mortality outcome in older men.

 

Study Design: Retrospective cohort study. 

 

Methods: We ascertained men 50 years or older with a hip fracture during 2000 to 2010 in a diverse northern California healthcare population. Age, comorbidity index, hip fracture incidence, and all-cause mortality up to 12 months post fracture were examined and compared by race/ethnicity.

 

Results: A total of 6247 men (aged 79.3 ± 9.8 years) experienced a hip fracture during 2000 to 2010: 81.4% were white, 7.5% Hispanic, 3.8% black, and 3.9% Asian. The age-adjusted annual incidence of hip fracture averaged 127 per 100,000, ranging from 116 to 139 per 100,000 during this period. In 2010, the age-adjusted incidence of hip fracture was highest among white men (137), followed by Hispanic (98) and black (80), and was lowest among Asian men (45 per 100,000). Mortality following hip fracture was 11.1%, 19.8%, 25.4%, and 32.9%, within 1, 3, 6, and 12 months, respectively, and increased with age. One-year mortality was similar for whites (33.7%), blacks (32.4%), and Hispanics (31.1%), but lower for Asians (23.1%; P <.05). Adjusting for age, comorbidity index, and calendar year, Asians remained at lower mortality risk compared with whites (adjusted odds ratio, 0.62; 95% confidence interval, 0.45-0.86). 

 

Conclusions: Although hip fracture rates were largely stable among older men, contemporary rates of hip fracture were highest for white and lowest for Asian men. One-year mortality was similar for white, black, and Hispanic men, but significantly lower for Asians. Future studies should investigate factors underlying observed ethnic differences in fracture outcome among US men.

 __________________________________

 

 Hips don't lie: What your various body parts are saying about YOUR personality

APR 2014

https://www.mirror.co.uk/news/uk-news/hips-dont-lie-what-your-3453463


 __________________________________

How to Get Bigger Hips Naturally to Improve Your Waist-To-Hip Ratio

September 29, 2020

https://bonytobombshell.com/how-to-get-bigger-hips-improve-waist-to-hip-ratio/

 

 __________________________________

Appropriateness of waist circumference and waist-to-hip ratio cutoffs for different ethnic groups

August 12, 2009

https://www.nature.com/articles/ejcn200970

 

 __________________________________

Ethnic Variability in Bone Geometry as Assessed by Hip Structure Analysis: Findings From the Hip Strength Across the Menopausal Transition Study

2012

https://asbmr.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/jbmr.1781


 __________________________________


The Effects of Race and Body Habitus on Bone Mineral Density of the Radius, Hip, and Spine in Premenopausal Women

June 1988

https://academic.oup.com/jcem/article-abstract/66/6/1247/2651776?redirectedFrom=fulltext


 __________________________________


The Chinese skeleton: insights into microstructure that help to explain the epidemiology of fracture

June 10, 2014

https://www.nature.com/articles/boneres20149


Abstract

Osteoporotic fractures are a major public health problem worldwide, but incidence varies greatly across racial groups and geographic regions. Recent work suggests that the incidence of osteoporotic fracture is rising among Asian populations. Studies comparing areal bone mineral density and fracture across races generally indicate lower bone mineral density in Asian individuals including the Chinese, but this does not reflect their relatively low risk of non-vertebral fractures. In contrast, the Chinese have relatively high vertebral fracture rates similar to that of Caucasians. The paradoxically low risk for some types of fractures among the Chinese despite their low areal bone mineral density has been elucidated in part by recent advances in skeletal imaging. New techniques for assessing bone quality non-invasively demonstrate that the Chinese compensate for smaller bone size by differences in hip geometry and microstructural skeletal organization. Studies evaluating factors influencing racial differences in bone remodeling, as well as bone acquisition and loss, may further elucidate racial variation in bone microstructure. Advances in understanding the microstructure of the Chinese skeleton have not only helped to explain the epidemiology of fracture in the Chinese, but may also provide insight into the epidemiology of fracture in other races as well.



 __________________________________


Racial and socioeconomic disparities in hip fracturecare

2016

https://digitalcommons.wustl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=6038&context=open_access_pubs



 __________________________________

Very Low Prevalence of Hip Osteoarthritis Among Chinese Elderly in Beijing, China, Compared With Whites in the United States

July 2002

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/art.10332



 __________________________________

Why Do Most Asian Girls Have Thick Legs?

https://answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20110723231527AAzMtP2


 __________________________________



What Men’s Big Calves Say About Their Health, According to Science

Aug 28 2020

Leg day isn't just about vanity. Calf circumference might be an indicator of health advantages.

https://www.fatherly.com/health-science/what-average-men-calf-size-means-health/



 __________________________________




Why Your Butt Is Staying Flat No Matter How Much You Work Out

Experts share the most common mistakes people make that keep them from their best backsides ever.

March 21, 2017

https://www.health.com/fitness/flat-butt-exercise-tips


 __________________________________

21 Foods that can make your butt bigger

May 2, 2020

https://mamaslatinas.com/healthy-you/131271-foods_achieve_bigger_butt


 __________________________________



Skinny fat Asians? Blame the dumpling diet

Jan 2019

BMI does not help as it only takes into account a person’s height and weight, it can incorrectly categorise a muscular person as overweight or obese, or a person holding excessive body fat as normal

https://www.scmp.com/magazines/style/news-trends/article/2181638/skinny-fat-asians-blame-dumpling-diet

 

 __________________________________

10 Reasons Why Asians Are so Slim

Statistically, Asians are the slimmest people on Earth. "That’s genetics," you’ll say. But that’s only partly right: traditions and habits also play a big part in staying fit.

https://brightside.me/inspiration-health/10-reasons-why-asians-are-so-slim-366160/


 __________________________________

Hispanic and Asian pubertal girls have higher android/gynoid fat ratio than whites

June 2007

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17557994/

 __________________________________

Why body positivity is harder as an Asian woman

September 24, 2018

https://biancakarina.com/2018/09/24/why-body-positivity-is-harder-as-an-asian-woman/



 __________________________________



{We do not recommend leg surgery to remove leg muscle}.

 __________________________________

How to get skinny legs by cutting off muscle

October 26, 2015

https://hubpages.com/style/Slimmer-Legs

 

 __________________________________


How to Get BIG Calves - 6 Secrets

September 17, 2012

https://hubpages.com/health/How-to-Get-BIG-Calves

 

 __________________________________

Glute Genetics

May 22, 2013

https://bretcontreras.com/glute-genetics/


 __________________________________



Want to Get Bigger Calves? You May Be Limited by Your Body Type

August 2, 2018

https://hubpages.com/health/Want-to-get-bigger-calves-You-may-be-stuck

 __________________________________

Racial differences in tibial bone density, mass, structure, and strength

https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Racial-differences-in-tibial-bone-density-mass-structure-and-strength_tbl2_232648674


 __________________________________

Anthropometry of the  Black  Adult Tibia: A South African Study

2015

http://www.intjmorphol.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/art_30_332.pdf

 

 __________________________________

Measurement of proximal tibial morphology in northeast Chinese population based on three-dimensional reconstruction computer tomography

November 2019

https://journals.lww.com/md-journal/FullText/2019/11080/Measurement_of_proximal_tibial_morphology_in.5.aspx


 __________________________________

Measurement of the Posterior Tibial Slope Depends on Ethnicity, Sex, and Lower Limb Alignment: A Computed Tomography Analysis of 378 Healthy Participants

 January 24, 2020

https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/2325967119895258


 __________________________________


Special Considerations in Asian Knee Arthroplasty

https://www.intechopen.com/books/arthroplasty-update/special-considerations-in-asian-knee-arthroplasty


 __________________________________



Racial differences in cortical bone and their relationship to biochemical variables in Black and White children in the early stages of puberty

Oct 2012

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232648674_Racial_differences_in_cortical_bone_and_their_relationship_to_biochemical_variables_in_Black_and_White_children_in_the_early_stages_of_puberty



 __________________________________

 

 Racial Differences in Growth Patterns of Children Assessed on the Basis of Bone Age

January 2009

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2817832/

Abstract

Purpose:

To collect up-to-date data in healthy children to create a digital hand atlas (DHA) that can be used to evaluate, on the basis of the Greulich and Pyle atlas method, racial differences in skeletal growth patterns of Asian, African American, white, and Hispanic children in the United States.
Materials and Methods:

This retrospective study was HIPAA compliant and approved by the institutional review board. Informed consent was obtained from all subjects or their guardians. From May 1997 to March 2008, a DHA containing 1390 hand and wrist radiographs obtained in male and female Asian, African American, white, and Hispanic children with normal skeletal development was developed. The age of subjects ranged from 1 day to 18 years. Each image was read by two pediatric radiologists working independently and without knowledge of the subject's chronologic age, and evaluation was based on their experience with the Greulich and Pyle atlas. Statistical analyses were performed with the paired-samples t test and analysis of variance to study racial differences in growth patterns. P ≤ .05 indicated a significant difference.
Results:

Bone age (P ≤ .05) was significantly overestimated in Asian and Hispanic children. These children appear to mature sooner than their African American and white peers. This was seen in both male and female subjects, especially in girls aged 10–13 years and boys aged 11–15 years.
Conclusion:

Ethnic and racial differences in growth patterns exist at certain ages; however, the Greulich and Pyle atlas does not recognize this fact. Assessment of bone age in children with use of the Greulich and Pyle atlas can be improved by considering the subject's ethnicity.

 

 __________________________________

National estimates of the timing of sexual maturation and racial differences among US children

2002

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12415029/


 __________________________________

Do women of certain ethnic groups tend to have larger buttocks than others?

https://www.quora.com/Do-women-of-certain-ethnic-groups-tend-to-have-larger-buttocks-than-others


 __________________________________


The reason black women have rounder butts than non-black women.

https://boxden.com/showthread.php?t=2366664


 __________________________________



Asian Squat: What Is It? What’s The Hype? Can You Do It?

December 12, 2019

https://powerliftingtechnique.com/asian-squat/


You’ve probably seen pictures of people from Asian countries performing a deep squat. You might even have friends who have traveled to an Asian country and returned home telling you that it was common to see Asian people squatting at what seemed to be ‘random places’.

What is the ‘Asian squat’? The Asian squat is a deep squat performed by people living in Asian countries for both practical and cultural reasons. People from Asian countries are raised to sit in that position for resting, or in substitute for either standing or sitting in a chair. Additionally, public restrooms have pans versus toilets, which require people to squat down. Having thigh-and-toilet-seat contact is seen as less sanitary than performing a deep squat in Asian countries.

In this article, I’ll explain the biomechanics of the Asian squat, what makes it so hard, and whether you’re capable of doing it too. We’ll start by taking a look at some pictures of the Asian squat so you know what it looks like.
The Asian Squat Phenomenon: What Is It?

Many people in Asian countries prefer to squat than stand.

It’s a common resting position, instead of lying down, leaning, or sitting in a chair.

In addition, the Asian squat is used while performing everyday tasks, such as eating, reading, smoking, doing the laundry, talking on the phone, and countless other activities.

I currently have a friend traveling in the Philippines , so I asked him to take some pictures of the “Asian squat” throughout the course of his day. 

 __________________________________

Why Can’t Everyone Do the ‘Asian Squat’?

March 16, 2018

All the way down! Not on your toes!

https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2018/03/can-you-do-the-asian-squat/555716/


Among the more practical advice that can be offered to international travelers is wisdom of the bathroom. So let me say, as someone who recently returned from China, that you should be prepared to (1) carry your own toilet paper and (2) practice your squat.

I do not mean those goofy chair-less sits you see at the gym. No, toned glutes will not save you here. I mean the deep squat, where you plop your butt down as far as it can go while staying aloft and balanced on the heels. This position—in contrast to deep squatting on your toes as most Americans naturally attempt instead—is so stable that people in China can hold it for minutes and perhaps even hours …

… while eating.

Luckily, at least one other person on the internet is as obsessed with squats as me, and he knows something about physiology. That would be Bryan Ausinheiler, a physical therapist in California who has written a series of blog posts about the deep squat. “The squat is a great model for a multi-segmental movement pattern,” Ausinheiler rattled off at the beginning of our phone call. Uh, what does that mean? “The squat is a triple-flexion movement. You’ve got bending at the hips, knees, and ankle, so you have to fold everything up underneath you.” There’s a lot going on.

But the key factor seems to be ankle flexibility. In the words of our editor Ross Andersen, “squatting makes me feel like I might rupture my Achilles.” A 2009 study in Japan found that men who found it impossible to deep squat had particularly inflexible ankles. This is also in part, Ausinheiler said, why kids have no problem squatting. “I measured my daughter’s ankle flexibility when she was one day old,” Ausinheiler said. “She has 70 degrees of ankle dorsiflexion! Normal in the West is, like, 30.” So humans are born squatters; some of us lose it when we stop trying.

In fact, not everyone who can deep squat is, as Ausinheiler put it, squatting “well,” with feet close together and toes pointed forward. I grew up in the United States with few occasions to squat, and I fall into this category. (A fact I was painfully aware of in China, because I had to place my feet wider than the grooved sides of the squat toilet that kept you from slipping on the wet floor.) The position, while doable, is not particularly comfortable for me either. When an editor dared me to write this entire article while squatting, I quickly realized I’d either end up with an extremely short article or a workplace injury.

Body shape also seems to play a role. Short limbs, big heads, and long torsos make it easier to balance. (Again why toddlers have it so easy.) “I have three brothers, so of course, every year I test all their abilities to deep-squat,” Ausinheiler told me. “What I found is, of the four of us, my squat is the best, I gotta say, but I’m also most conscious of technique. I have another brother who has even shorter legs than me. His squat isn’t quite as good as mine, but it is very easy for him. And then the brother with the longest legs has the worst squat. He kind of has a hard time with it.”

Believe it or not, no one appears to have actually studied innate ability in deep squatting across ethnic groups. “You would have to take kids from the time they’re born in China and never let them do any squats to be a control group, and it’ll never happen,” Matt Hudson, a physiologist at the University of Delaware who kindly humored my questions, says. And ultimately, it may not matter. Practice and training make the bigger difference. (I suggested to my boyfriend that he could improve his squats, but he refused for reasons that I cannot fathom.)

And Ausinheiler says he has seen more people interested in doing a deep squat—thanks to Crossfit. Weight lifters squat in a deep position, pushing up through the heels. And weight-lifting shoes, Hudson points out, usually have a slight heel to help. Crossfit has turned a lot of people into weight lifters—and in turn, made them conscious of their stiff ankles.

There is another group of pro squatters, those who believe America’s bowel problems can be blamed on toilet seats (the argument has to do with the anorectal angle). Squatting is, of course, how our ancestors pooped for millennia. Yet this ability that comes so naturally to cavemen and babies has been lost to many Western toilet sitters—and it’s not so easy to get it back.


 __________________________________

Anatomical variations in Asian knees: one size does not fit all

https://aorecon.aofoundation.org/education/surgical-insights/55.html



Asian knees differ from Caucasian knees in many ways. For example, size, shape, thickness, angle and growth rates. How do anatomical differences influence a surgeon's approach to TKR in these populations?

TKR requires precision. Accurate bone cutting, soft tissue balance and adequate resected surface coverage can all influence TKR success. This is why a number of practitioners have started to question the use of prosthetics designed for Caucasian knees with Asian patients. Ethnicity, it seems, creates very different types of knees that may require equally variable treatment.

Part 1 in this series of articles on TKR in the Asian knee looked at cultural influences upon usage as well as patient expectations. Here we will examine the inherent anatomical differences of Asian TKR patients.

Different from the start

Knee alignment and growth rates can vary widely across regions. For example, the majority varus (inward angulation) TFA (*) observed in Chinese children as young as 2 years old differs markedly from the reportedly majority valgus (outward) alignment of Indian, Korean, Nigerian and white children of the same age.

At the same time, Turkish children have even more pronounced valgus TFA, so that up to 11 degrees physiological valgus is considered within the normal range for Turkish children between 3 and 17 years of age.

Also, the mean IMD of Chinese children has been shown to decrease after 3 years of age, returning to zero at roughly 8 years of age. White children, meanwhile, were found to be maximally bow-legged at 6 months, returning on average to neutral by 18 months. Bowlegs are considered unusual amongst white children after 2 years of age. Whereas in Korea a similar knee angle development process was found to occur at a different pace, so that the varus alignment of Korean children neutralized at 1.5 years of age and valgus alignment peaked at 4 years of age.

In Nigeria, the distribution of knee angles becomes bi-modal after 6 months of age, with half varus and half valgus, returning to majority valgus after two years of age. Nigerian children became maximally and uniformally knock-kneed between 3 and 3.5 years of age, whilst Indian children reached maximum valgus between 5 and 6 years of age.

Body weight does not appear to significantly influence these variable growth rates, so it is likely that they reflect the ethnical and racial differences between regions. 

Mismatch

The fact that knees are so innately variable has important implications for TKR procedures. Most of the currently available knee prosthetics are generally designed for the Caucasian knee. In studies being undertaken to assess the impact of this historic, one size fits all approach it appears that the success of TKR in Asia has been compromised by what is, effectively, a component mismatch. Japanese patients, for example, have significantly less postoperative ROM than white patients. At least 4.1% have required revision within 7 years, whilst only 2.6% of American patients required similar work within 9 years.

Even the smallest Caucasian specific prosthetics might be too large for the Asian knee and size is not the only factor that needs to be taken in to account.

In overview, differences between Caucasian and Asian knees include the asymetrical tibial anatomic axis of Chinese, Korean and Iranian knees (requiring a change to the tibial entry point), the variable rate of change of the femoral aspect ratio and tibial aspect ratios of Chinese, Japanese, Korean and Indian patients, significant differences in angle parameters including the distal femoral cornal angle and the posterior femoral condylar angle and structurally distinct patellars.

1) Tibial placement

There is strong evidence to suggest that the center of the tibial plateau should not be used as a landmark of the tibial component. Studies show that Chinese, Korean and Iranian patients tend to have a more asymetrical tibial plateau, so that the central point (Cp) runs medial to the central shaft line (Cs). This requires that the tibial entry point be adjusted, because otherwise the tibial component is likely to be inserted in varus which can cause the tibial medial cortex to fracture.

In other words, tibial base-plates designed for more symmetrical, Caucasian knees may not always be suitable.

2) Aspect ratios

- The Femoral Aspect Ratio

Also, the risk of component oversizing is increased if related aspect ratios are not taken in to consideration. The smaller distal femor diameter of Chinese, Japanese, Korean and Indian populations compared with their Caucasian counterparts also creates a significant disparity amongst related parameters. The femoral aspect ratio, for example, increases in the context of these smaller dimensions. In general this ratio will be higher for smaller knees and lower for larger knees.

- The Tibial Aspect ​Ratio

Similarly, the tibial aspect ratio (tML/tAP %) is negatively correlated with tAP, which means that the smaller the tAP, the larger the aspect.

In a Chinese study of relationships between the tibial mediolateral (tML), the femoral mediolateral (fML) dimension, the tibial mediolateral (tML) and the femoral anteroposterior (fAP) measurements it was found that the fML and fAP were, likewise, strongly correlated with the tML. As the tML increased, the fML and fAP also increased.

In Korea, where tibial dimensions appear to correlate to height and smaller AP dimenions again reveal higher aspect ratios, every increase of the AP dimension of the prominal tibia thus means that the anticipated tibial component becomes less oval.


3) The angles

The rotational configuration of the Asian distal femur differs from its Caucasian counterpart. The inferolateral angle between the knee joint surface and the mechanical axis of the tibia of both Chinese females and males is more oblique than that of Caucasians, creating a rectangular flexion gap.

These differences extend to the tibial varus angle, the posterior tibial slope and the mechanical versus anatomical axes of the Whiteside-epicondylar angle in the Chinese population.

Similarly in Japan, where 78% of patients have exhibited a varus alignmment,torsion angles are generally lower than Caucasian subjects and ACL laxity is generally higher.

Failing to take these differences in to account when preparing and cutting the distal femur and proximal tibia can mean that “soft tissue tension, ligament balancing and the ROM of the joint may be disturbed”  
4) Patellar dimensions

Patellar dimensions change significantly between ethnic groups. Variables such as thickness, height/width ratio, and relative position of the median ridge are important considerations in the selection of prosthetic patellar components.

A thin patellar can soften the impact of patellofemoral contact, but is also more susceptible to stress fracture and anteroposterior instability. A thick patellar, meanwhile, can increase effective quadriceps moment arm at low flexion angles, but can also decrease motion. As a result it is generally believed to be preferable if a resurfaced patella maintains its original thickness. Thus, in the case of thin patella (associated with many Asian knees) specifically designed patellar prosthesis with less thickness is recommended.

When selecting the optimal patella size it is also important to consider the position of the median ridge. A well placed median ridge can help to support restoration of normal movement after TKA. Again, it is generally considered more helpful to replace the median ridge in its original position. In order to restore the median ridge of Asian patients – whose patella can be thinner and smaller than Caucasians - orthopaedic surgeons may need to select smaller patellar components that also reduce the patellofemoral articulation contact area.

Yin and Yang: gender considerations

Gender differences further complicate regional variations. In India, for example, it has been observed that the mean TFA of boys and girls varies significantly between 3 and 6 years of age when girls become noticeably more valgus, returning to similarity after 6 years. In Turkey meanwhile, girls experience maximum valgus at 6, whereas boys reach their peak valgus a year later.

Naturally, female and male adult bodies retain distinct characteristics. Studies show ongoing, ethnic specific variations between the knees of Thai, Korean, Japanese and Chinese men and women.

In China, despite their more varus kneee alignment, the distal femur of Chinese females are also distinctly narrower than white females (so that their knees are both smaller and narrower), whilst Chinese males tend to have a wider proximal tibia than their white counterparts.

The size and shape of Chinese female knees differ significantly from white female knees. The fML dimension of Chinese females is generally smaller than that of white females. Similarly, the fML and fAP ratios (**) of the two differ so that those of Chinese females are again much smaller. Despite the petite Chinese tibia, however, there is no significant difference in the tibial aspect ratio of the two. Nor are there any marked differences in their media/lateral posterior tibial slope in either sex.

Yet, differences between the tibial aspect ratio of Chinese males and white males are pronounced. The inferolateral angle in both the right and left extremity in Chinese males is significantly larger than that of white males. At the same time their fML and fAP (femoral aspect ratio) dimensions are significantly smaller. It is suspected that, in general, a smaller tAP (tibial) dimension accounts for a larger tibial aspect ratio.

Other examples of gender and ethnicity variation include the greater FTA of most Japanese subjects compared to their Australian counterparts. The difference is more marked in Japanese men, however, than Japanese women. Yet, Japanese females enjoy greater femoral antetorsion than men of either ethnicity. Also, despite no significant ethnic differences in tibiofibular torsion, Japanese females experience a noticeable decrease in tibiofibular torsion as they age, whilst Japanese males do not.

Gender also creates similarity as much as difference: It appears that Caucasian women, for example, can achieve knee flexion greater than 150 degrees, on a par with both Japanese women and men. Caucasian men on the other hand trail behind them all. The medial condyles of Caucasian males reveal roll above 120 degrees of flexion. Similarly, in deep flexion they have the least amount of external rotation.
 
Design recommendations

Judging by the normalized ratios and non-linear shape analysis presented in multiple studies of the Asian knee, researchers have concluded that the sorts of differences canvassed in this article are generally “independent of any scale factor”. Yet still today many Asian patients have prosthetic implants that do not account for these adjustments. Either they are too big, or they employ relatively constant aspect ratios so that tML is either undersized with the smaller tAP, or overhang with the larger tAP – whereas the tibial aspect ratio of a prosthesis designed especially for the Korean population, for example, would decrease with a corresponding increase in the anteroposterior dimension.

Often too, the tibial stem is medially offset to suit the anteromedial tibial shaft of Western populations, whereas for TKA in Chinese populations, for example, it is preferable to employ a variable and long-stemmed offset stem that can accommodate a variety of assymetric alignments.

Just as smaller angles of cutting blocks and shorter intramedullary rods entering the femur can optimize a distal femoral cut depending on the size and shape of the patient, so asymmetric femoral components might also prevent soft tissue irritation.

As evidence mounts of the need for more prostheses designed especially for the Asian knee, researchers are calling for customizable prosthetics that approach the tibia and femur as a whole (particularly given the strong correlations between tML and fML) and employ individual tML and fAP as their design criteria. Likewise, it is considered “imperative” by many that patellar prosthesis be specifically designed to accommodate the thinner, Asian patella.

 __________________________________

VMO Exercises - Target Toning the Teardrop Muscle by the Knee

June 6, 2020

https://hubpages.com/health/VMO-Exercises-Target-Toning-the-Teardrop-Muscle-by-the-Knee

Tear Drop Muscle of the Legs

In anatomy terms the muscle next to the knee that is believed to be the muscle that is primary in stabilizing the knee joint, is call the vastus medialis oblique. As we have discussed the oblique is essentially a slanted muscle.

In body building terms, we will often hear this muscle referred to as the "tear drop" muscle because if it is fully developed, it will resemble a tear drop.

Often if you are experiencing knee problems, therapists will seek to strengthen this muscle. This muscle is difficult to engage but we have compiled three excellent videos along with several different types of exercises for you to choose from.


 __________________________________

Racial Differences in Magnetic Resonance Image-based Three-dimensional Bone Shape of the Femur Versus the Tibia at the Knee: Data from the Osteoarthritis Initiative

2017

https://www.oarsijournal.com/article/S1063-4584(17)30548-4/fulltext


 __________________________________


What Differences in Morphologic Features of the Knee Exist Among Patients of Various Races? A Systematic Review

October 04, 2016

https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11999-016-5097-4

 __________________________________

 

 Racial Differences in Fecal Incontinence in Community-Dwelling Women from the EPI Study

2014

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4006939/



 __________________________________


Comparison of bowel patterns in Hispanics and non-Hispanic whites

1995

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7648977/


 __________________________________


Epidemiology of Irritable Bowel Syndrome Among African Americans as Compared With Whites: A Population-Based Study

July 01, 2005

https://www.cghjournal.org/article/S1542-3565(05)00367-8/fulltext


 __________________________________


What are the sexual, ethnic, and racial differences in irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) incidence?

Dec 11, 2019

https://www.medscape.com/answers/180389-10062/what-are-the-sexual-ethnic-and-racial-differences-in-irritable-bowel-syndrome-ibs-incidence


American and European cultures demonstrate similar frequencies of irritable bowel syndrome across racial and ethnic lines. However, within the United States, survey questionnaires indicate a lower prevalence of irritable bowel syndrome in Hispanics in Texas and Asians in California. Populations of Asia and Africa may have a lower prevalence of irritable bowel syndrome. The role of different cultural influences and varying health care–seeking behaviors is unclear.

Adolescent and young adult women are most commonly affected. In Western countries, women are 2-3 times more likely to develop irritable bowel syndrome than men, although males represent 70%-80% of patients with irritable bowel syndrome in the Indian subcontinent...

 __________________________________



Systematic review: the influence of geography and ethnicity in irritable bowel syndrome

March 2005

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1365-2036.2005.02396.x


Results:

There is a wide variation, depending in part on the criteria used and differences in diagnostic practices and health care utilization. No convincing evidence emerged of a difference between east and west. Most series, eastern or western showed a female predominance or no gender difference. Several US studies in communities and specific populations suggest that stool frequency is lower, and the prevalence of constipation higher, among Afro‐Caribbean Americans compared with white individuals.


 __________________________________



Demographic and Dietary Determinants of Constipation in the US Population

1990

https://ajph.aphapublications.org/doi/pdf/10.2105/AJPH.80.2.185


 __________________________________

Ethnic/racial differences in gastrointestinal symptoms and diagnosis associated with the risk of Helicobacter pylori infection in the US

2017

https://www.dovepress.com/ethnicracial-differences-in-gastrointestinal-symptoms-and-diagnosis-as-peer-reviewed-fulltext-article-CEG


 __________________________________

 

Ethnic variations in five lower gastrointestinal diseases: Scottish Health and Ethnicity Linkage Study

2014

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4208048/


 __________________________________

Racial differences in eosinophilic gastrointestinal disorders among Caucasian and Asian

July 2015

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1323893015000738


 __________________________________

Ethnic/racial differences in gastrointestinal symptoms and diagnosis associated with the risk of Helicobacter pylori infection in the US

2018

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5779296/


 __________________________________


The Ecosystem in Immigrants’ Guts Is Shaped by the Place They Call Home

By studying the relationship among ethnicity, migration history

2018

https://www.nytimes.com/2018/11/08/health/immigration-gut-microbiome.html


 __________________________________



Racial Disparity in Gastrointestinal Cancer Risk

August 11, 2017

https://www.gastrojournal.org/article/S0016-5085(17)36030-4/fulltext



Cancer from the gastrointestinal tract and its associated excretory organs will occur in more than 300,000 Americans in 2017, with colorectal cancer responsible for >40% of that burden; there will be more than 150,000 deaths from this group of cancers in the same time period. Disparities among subgroups related to the incidence and mortality of these cancers exist. The epidemiology and risk factors associated with each cancer bear out differences for racial groups in the United States. Esophageal adenocarcinoma is more frequent in non-Hispanic whites, whereas esophageal squamous cell carcinoma with risk factors of tobacco and alcohol is more frequent among blacks. Liver cancer has been most frequent among Asian/Pacific Islanders, chiefly due to hepatitis B vertical transmission, but other racial groups show increasing rates due to hepatitis C and emergence of cirrhosis from non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. Gastric cancer incidence remains highest among Asian/Pacific Islanders likely due to gene−environment interaction. In addition to esophageal squamous cell carcinoma, cancers of the small bowel, pancreas, and colorectum show the highest rates among blacks, where the explanations for the disparity are not as obvious and are likely multifactorial, including socioeconomic and health care access, treatment, and prevention (vaccination and screening) differences, dietary and composition of the gut microbiome, as well as biologic and genetic influences. Cognizance of these disparities in gastrointestinal cancer risk, as well as approaches that apply precision medicine methods to populations with the increased risk, may reduce the observed disparities for digestive cancers.



 __________________________________



The Impact of Ethnicity in Digestive Diseases

https://www.ganjllc.com/impact-ethnicity-digestive-diseases/


Is it possible some gastrointestinal (GI) disorders are hereditary and tied to your ethnicity? Let’s take a look:

Historical graphs and analysis on the Gi Health Foundation website show that only as far back as 40 years ago, it was believed that Caucasians—especially northern European ancestry—were most prone to Crohn’s disease. It was also believed to be uncommon in African Americans and other racial minorities in the U.S. However, as the 70s turned into the 80s, trends began to change. Researchers found that Crohn’s disease was more common in African-American, Latino and Asian nationalities. By 1985, a study on African Americans in Georgia showed that incidence of Crohn’s rose from 7 to 12 persons per 10,000 over the study period.

In addition, Medscape recently published an article revealing that another common GI disorder, gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD), appears to be highest in North America and Europe. In comparison, the risk is lower for the development of more complicated GERD symptoms, such as Barrett’s esophagus, for African Americans.

Finally, the World Cancer Research Fund lists stomach cancer as the fifth most common cancer in the world, with 952,000 new cases diagnosed in 2012. Unlike the above two GI disorders, stomach cancer seems to be less prevalent in the western hemisphere— the lowest incidents are in North America—and more prevalent in the Republic of Korea, Mongolia and Japan. About 71 percent of stomach cancer cases also occur in less developed countries with poor nutrition.

 __________________________________



Do Asians really age more slowly?

October 3, 2016

https://www.thejakartapost.com/life/2016/10/03/do-asians-really-age-more-slowly.html

 __________________________________




Racial differences in biochemical knee cartilage composition between African-American and Caucasian-American women with 3 T MR-based T2 relaxation time measurements – data from the Osteoarthritis Initiative

April 29, 2015

https://www.oarsijournal.com/article/S1063-4584(15)01143-7/fulltext


Summary

 

Objective

 

To determine whether knee cartilage composition differs between African-American and Caucasian-American women at risk for Osteoarthritis (OA) using in vivo 3 T MRI T2 relaxation time measurements.

 

Methods

 

Right knee MRI studies of 200 subjects (100 African-American women, and 100 closely matched Caucasian-American women) were selected from the Osteoarthritis Initiative (OAI). Knee cartilage was segmented in the patellar (PAT), medial and lateral femoral (MF/LF), and medial and lateral tibial compartments (MT/LT)). Mean T2 relaxation time values per compartment and per whole joint cartilage were generated and analyzed spatially via laminar and grey-level co-occurrence matrix (GLCM) texture methods. Presence and severity of cartilage lesions per compartment were graded using a modified WORMS grading. Statistical analysis employed paired t- and McNemar testing.

 

Results

 

While African-American women and Caucasian-Americans had similar WORMS cartilage lesion scores (P = 0.970), African-Americans showed significantly lower mean T2 values (∼1 ms difference; ∼0.5SD) than Caucasian-Americans in the whole knee cartilage (P < 0.001), and in the subcompartments (LF: P = 0.001, MF: P < 0.001, LT: P = 0.019, MT: P = 0.001) and particularly in the superficial cartilage layer (whole cartilage: P < 0.001, LF: P < 0.001, MF: P < 0.001, LT: P = 0.003, MT: P < 0.001). T2 texture parameters were also significantly lower in the whole joint cartilage of African-Americans than in Caucasian-Americans (variance: P = 0.001; contrast: P = 0.018). In analyses limited to matched pairs with no cartilage lesions in a given compartment, T2 values remained significantly lower in African-Americans.

 

Conclusion

 

Using T2 relaxation time as a biomarker for the cartilage collagen network, our findings suggest racial differences in the biochemical knee cartilage composition between African-American and Caucasian-American women.

 __________________________________

 

 Regeneration race: Cartilage regrows faster in some joints than others

October 23, 2019

 

Thought regenerating tissue was just for salamanders? It turns out that humans can regenerate certain tissues faster than others too.

 

A study authored by Duke researchers found that humans have the ability to regenerate cartilage in certain joints, though some are faster than others. These findings could potentially lead to new treatments for osteoarthritis, one of the world’s most common diseases.

 

The study, which included research going back more than a decade, outlined the discovery of an “age gradient” for different types of cartilage in humans. The researchers examined protein modifications and discovered that ankle cartilage had a higher rate of production than cartilage in the knees or hips.

 

 

https://www.dukechronicle.com/article/2019/10/regeneration-cartilage-regrows-faster-joints-salamanders

 

 __________________________________



Racial/Ethnic Disparities in Physical Function Before and After Total Knee Arthroplasty Among Women in the United States

May 15, 2020

https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamanetworkopen/fullarticle/2766041


 __________________________________



Racial differences in biochemical knee cartilage composition between African-American and Caucasian-American women with 3 T MR-based T2 relaxation time measurements – data from the Osteoarthritis Initiative

September 2015

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1063458415011437


 __________________________________


Racial differences in gait mechanics associated with knee osteoarthritis

October 10, 2013

https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF03327442



Abstract

Background and aims: This study examines racial differences in gait mechanics in persons with knee osteoarthritis and the influence of anthropometrics, educational level, radiographic disease severity (rOA), and self-report measures of pain and disability on racial differences in gait.

Methods: One hundred seventy five (64 black and 111 white) adults with radiographie knee OA were tested. 3-D kinematic and kinetic data were collected while subjects walked at two self-selected speeds (normal and fast). Anthropometrie data, radiographie level of OA, and self-report measures of pain and disability were also collected. Gait patterns were compared across groups and within groups.

Results: Black and white subjects did not differ significantly in radiographie OA. However, blacks walked significantly more slowly when asked to walk fast. At the normal speed, blacks had a smaller knee range of motion and loading rate than whites. Blacks also took longer to reach their peak maximum ground reaction force than whites. Within black subjects variations in gait mechanics were primarily explained by BMI, rOA, self-reported psychological disability, and pain self-efficacy. In white subjects, variations in gait mechanics were primarily explained by weight, age, velocity, psychological disability, and self-efficacy.

Conclusions: Blacks in this study had a pattern of gait mechanics generally associated with high levels of osteoarthritis, though they did not differ significantly in rOA from whites. The variability in gait patterns exhibited by blacks was most strongly related to variance in walking speed, anthropometries, and perceived physical ability. Taken together, these results suggest that race is an important factor that must be considered in the treatment and study of osteoarthritis.


 __________________________________




Racial/Ethnic and Sex Differences in Total Knee Arthroplasty Outcomes

May 15, 2020

https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamanetworkopen/fullarticle/2766039?widget=personalizedcontent&previousarticle=522322


Total knee arthroplasty (TKA) is one of the fastest-growing elective surgical procedures in the United States. For years, researchers and public health professionals have documented marked disparities between black and non-Hispanic white patients in overall use of TKA.1 It is also known that racial/ethnic and sex differences exist in the timing of TKA, as measured by disease severity, patient preferences, and post-TKA outcomes.2,3

In addition to pain, functional debilitation is a key clinical indication for undergoing TKA. Previous studies have shown minority patients’ lower preference rate for seeking joint replacement surgery, with cultural factors associated with individuals’ perceptions of disease management and surgical outcomes.4 Prior to the article by Cavanaugh et al,5 few studies have examined disparities in post-TKA functional outcomes and their association with poorer preoperative physical function (PF) and postoperative recovery. This study uses longitudinal analyses of data collected before and after TKA to evaluate trajectories of PF by race/ethnicity after surgical intervention. The authors document the racial/ethnic disparities in both presurgical and postsurgical patient-reported PF. Specifically, black women reported lower preoperative and postoperative PF scores than white women. Moreover, Cavanaugh et al5 identify that black women’s poorer preoperative PF scores are largely associated with poorer physical function after TKA.

In secondary analyses of Women’s Health Initiative data linked to data captured in the fee-for-service Medicare files, Cavanaugh and colleagues5 examine preoperative and postoperative health among 10 325 US women who underwent TKA between 1993 and 2014. A median of nine 36-Item Short Form Health Survey PF measurements were recorded per participant over time. Owing to the asynchronous collection of PF data, generalized linear mixed modeling was used to estimate the PF score 1 year prior to TKA, when the measure was not available. The authors modeled annual preoperative and postoperative PF for the decade before and after TKA. This novel longitudinal approach estimates the expected measures and the interpolation of these measures to generate complete data despite varied measurement intervals. The methods are comprehensive and well explained.

Compared with white women, black women had more severe symptoms of degenerative joint disease across all pre-TKA years. Similarly, trajectory analyses showed more advanced pain and functional limitations (lower PF scores) across the years before TKA for black women compared with white women. Also, compared with black women, white women had a shorter period between the onset of advanced symptoms and undergoing TKA. Black women also reported more comorbidities and a higher mean BMI at the time of surgery. After adjustment for comorbidities, Cavanaugh et al5 found that the absolute differences between the PF scores for white women and the PF scores for black women at 1 year, although statistically significant, did not reach clinically meaningful differences (−3.2 points on a 100-point scale).

In longer-term post-TKA analyses, it is not clear why black women reported lower 1-year functional scores when no significant racial/ethnic differences were observed 3 years after surgery. The measurement of PF may be associated with this confusion because only generic measures of PF were available (ie, measures that may be associated with medical and musculoskeletal comorbidities in addition to knee arthritis).

Although the major strength of this study is the longitudinal analysis of functional outcomes, several limitations should be considered when interpreting the findings. First, the analyses are limited to women of Medicare age. In addition, the small number of self-identified Hispanic participants limited generalizability among Hispanic women. Future research should examine functional trajectories among black men and other racial/ethnic minority groups. Furthermore, almost one-half of TKA procedures in the United States are performed on patients younger than 65 years and Medicare data do not address TKA use and timing among working-age adults.

The analytic approach and the clear patterns within the longitudinal data make the findings of this study important. Future studies should consider replicating these findings using longitudinal methods in a cohort of patients that includes a sufficient number of men, patients younger than 65 years, and patients of Hispanic ethnicity. These studies should consider an in-depth analysis of how baseline comorbidities, severity of disease at presentation, and social determinants of health are associated with variation in racial/ethnic and sex outcomes after TKA.

_____________________________________

_____________________________________

__________________________________

__________________________________

__________________________________


Section 20: Feet & Genetics

__________________________________

__________________________________

__________________________________

_____________________________________

_____________________________________

Ancient footprints offer clues into early humans’ body size

 12/14/2016

New footprints from Laetoli (Tanzania) provide evidence for marked body size variation in early hominins

https://www.scienceintheclassroom.org/research-papers/ancient-footprints-offer-clues-early-humans-body-size


__________________________________

Can Foot Shape Ancestry Reveal Anything About Your Origins?

Table of contents

    Foot shape ancestry: what your toes say about you
    Greek toes: your feet are on fire
    Celtic feet: the luck of the Irish
    Roman toes: fit for an emperor
    Egyptian foot heritage: the art of fake toes
    Medical advantages of the Egyptian foot shape
    What your feet say about your heritage: the truth
    Know your heritage
    Before you hot-foot it, remember


https://atlasbiomed.com/blog/can-foot-shape-ancestry-reveal-anything-about-your-origins/



__________________________________



Racial differences in foot disorders and foot type

https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Racial-differences-in-foot-disorders-and-foot-type-Golightly-Hannan/6cf4b14376ec2c4bf72da0a8a49deae428443751

__________________________________

Racial disparities in total ankle arthroplasty utilization and outcomes

2015

https://europepmc.org/articles/pmc4392624/bin/13075_2015_589_moesm2_esm.doc



__________________________________


Prevalence of Foot and Ankle Conditions in a Multiethnic Community Sample of Older Adults

March 2004

https://academic.oup.com/aje/article/159/5/491/92185


__________________________________



Brass Ankles

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brass_Ankles


The Brass Ankles of South Carolina was a "tri-racial isolate" group, as defined by anthropologists, that developed in the colonial era. They lived as free people of color successively in the areas of Charleston, Berkeley, Colleton and Orangeburg counties as they increasingly migrated away from the Low Country and into the Piedmont and frontier areas, where racial discrimination was less pronounced. They were identified by this term in the later 18th, 19th, and early 20th centuries. They had a combination of European, African, and Native American ancestry...


__________________________________


Ethnicity and risk factors for change in the ankle-brachial index: The Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis

November 2009

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0741521409012233


Background

The aim of this study was to determine the risk factors for conversion from a normal to either a low or high ankle-brachial index (ABI).
Methods

Participants in the Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis who had two separate measurements of the ABI over a 3-year time period were assessed.
Results

At baseline, the mean age was 62 years and 50% were women, 28% African American, 12% Chinese, 22% Hispanic and 38% non-Hispanic White. Of the 5514 participants with a baseline ABI between 0.90 and 1.40, 89 (1.6%) had an ABI ≤ 0.90 (“low ABI group”) and 71 (1.3%) had an ABI ≥ 1.40 (“high ABI group”) 3 years later. On multivariable analysis, the odds for having progressed into the low ABI group were significantly increased for higher baseline age, hypertension, diabetes, greater pack-years of cigarette smoking, and homocysteine levels. The odds for progression into the high ABI group were increased for male gender and higher body mass index. Compared with non-Hispanic Whites, African Americans had a significantly higher odds for progression to the low ABI group (odds ratio [OR]: 2.24, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.29-3.88) while having a reduced odds for progression to the high ABI group (OR: 0.50, 95% CI: 0.24-1.00). Neither Chinese nor Hispanic ethnicity was significantly associated with progression to either ABI group.
Conclusions

The risk factors for progression to a low or high ABI were distinct and African Americans were at increased risk for progression to a low ABI but at decreased risk for progression into the high ABI group.

The ankle-brachial index (ABI) is a valid1 and reproducible2, 3 method for detecting peripheral arterial disease (PAD). Since it is simple, inexpensive and noninvasive, the ABI is suitable for screening asymptomatic individuals and in community-based studies. Using an ABI value typically less than 0.90 as the criterion, many clinical and population-based studies have determined the prevalence of PAD.4, 5, 6, 7, 8 In these studies and compared with Whites, African Americans have repeatedly been shown to have a higher prevalence of PAD while Hispanic and Chinese Americans typically have prevalences similar to Whites.4, 7, 8 Moreover, this excess of PAD in African Americans appears independent of both traditional and novel cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk factors.




__________________________________


Cross-sectional associations between variations in ankle shape by statistical shape modeling, injury history, and race: the Johnston County Osteoarthritis Project

2017

https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/204776763.pdf


__________________________________



Prevalence of Foot and Ankle Conditions in a Multiethnic Community Sample of Older Adults

March 2004

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/8686665_Prevalence_of_Foot_and_Ankle_Conditions_in_a_Multiethnic_Community_Sample_of_Older_Adults


__________________________________



Association between ankle blood pressure and central arterial wave reflection

2011

https://www.nature.com/articles/jhh2010100.pdf?origin=ppub



__________________________________




Intrinsic contribution of gender and ethnicity to normal ankle-brachial index values: The Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis (MESA)

2006

https://www.jvascsurg.org/article/S0741-5214(06)01865-9/fulltext




Objective

Several studies report a higher prevalence of peripheral arterial disease (PAD) in women and among blacks. These studies based their PAD definition on an ankle-brachial index (ABI) <0.90. We hypothesized that there is an inherent contribution of gender and ethnicity to normal ABI values, independent of biologic and social disparities that exist between gender and ethnic groups. Consequently, an ABI threshold that disregards these fundamental gender-related and ethnicity-related differences could partly contribute to reported prevalence differences.

Methods

A cross-sectional study was designed as part of the Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis (MESA), a multicenter United States population study. We selected a subgroup of participants with unequivocally normal ABIs (1.00 to 1.30), and additionally excluded participants with any major PAD risk factor (smoking, diabetes, dyslipidemia, hypertension). In a linear model with ABI as the dependent variable, demographic, clinical, biologic, and social variables were introduced as independent factors.

Results

Among 1775 healthy participants, there was no association between ABI level and subclinical cardiovascular disease (coronary calcium or carotid plaque). Male gender, weight, and high education level were positively correlated with ABI, whereas black race, triglycerides, pack-years (in past smokers), and pulse pressure were negatively correlated. In the fully adjusted model, women had about 0.02 lower ABI values than men, and blacks showed ABI values about 0.02 lower than non-Hispanic whites.

Conclusion

These data suggest intrinsic ethnic and gender differences in ABI. Such differences, although small in magnitude, are highly significant and can distort population estimates of disease burden.



__________________________________

Painful Flexible Flatfoot

2015


https://www.davidsfeldmanmd.com/pdfs/painful-flexible-flatfoot-foot-ankle-clinic.pdf


DEVELOPMENT AND RISK FACTORS 

 

Reports regarding the true incidence of FFF vary. Harris and Beath had the largest cohort of FFF looking into the incidence in 3619 Canadian soldiers. In their study, these authors reported a 20% incidence of FFF. The many factors associated with flatfoot include age, gender, ethnicity, and shoe wearing. Early in life, flatfoot is a normal stage of development. The medial arch develops through the normal process of growing. Vander-wilde and colleagues studied a population of normal children in Columbia in the first 5 years of life. They concluded that young children are flatfooted and the arch develops as they grow beyond 5 years of age. Another study conducted in Austria showed similar results and exhibited a reduction of flatfoot in more than 50% of the children between the ages of 3 and 6 years. Other authors looked into the effect of shoe wearing and found that FFF was more prevalent in the shod versus the unshod children. Flatfoot occurs more frequently among obese school children. Ethnicity can also play a role, with ahigher incidence of flatfoot in African-Americans compared with Caucasians. The several theories defining the etiology of FFF depend on the anatomy of the footand the surrounding musculature. The earliest theories focused on muscle imbalanceand weakness around the foot as the primary causes of flatfootedness. Later, the bony anatomy and the ligamentous laxity of the midfoot joints were proposed as the main factor. Harris and Beath distinguished between the passive and the active support of the foot. The passive support is the bony and the ligamentous structures of the foot. The active support is the muscular envelope that includes muscles belonging to the foot alone and others that insert in the foot but originate in the leg. The passive support is the primary arch support and the active support comes into play when the passive support fails. Basmajian and Stecko studied the muscle electrophysiology while applying different loads to the foot. They concluded that the bony and ligamentous structures are the primary restraints of the arch and that the musclescome into play with excessive loads. These muscles play a principal, active role in the stabilization of the foot during propulsion.


__________________________________

Explaining Racial Variation in Lower Extremity AmputationA 5-Year Retrospective Claims Data and Medical Record Review at an Urban Teaching Hospital

December 1, 2003

https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamasurgery/fullarticle/395906


Results  Among all patients hospitalized for LE ischemia, African American patients were younger (P<.05), more often female (P<.01), and more likely to undergo major amputation (odds ratio, 1.68; P = .005). However, after adjusting for age, sex, and diabetes mellitus prevalence, the analysis revealed an equal likelihood of primary amputation among African Americans and whites. Repeat amputees were 2.5 times more likely to be African American than white (P = .04).

Conclusion  The racial disparity at the study institution was primarily due to African American patients undergoing repeat major amputation at a significantly higher rate than whites.

__________________________________

Sex and ethnic differences in the associations between lipoprotein(a) and peripheral arterial disease in the Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis

2016

https://www.jvascsurg.org/article/S0741-5214(15)01950-3/pdf

__________________________________

Association of Race and Major Adverse Cardiac Events (MACE): The Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) Cohort

2019

https://www.hindawi.com/journals/jar/2020/7417242/


__________________________________




Fact check: Different toe lengths do not indicate ethnicity

July 15, 2020

https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/factcheck/2020/07/15/fact-check-greek-foot-mortons-toe-not-linked-ancestry/5443618002/


The claim: You can trace your ancestry by looking at the length of your toes.

Science teachers may use Punnett squares to illustrate possible genotypes, or an individual’s genetic makeup. For genes with two variants, the calculation may seem simple: A child with the dominant trait for curly hair and the recessive trait for straight hair likely would have curly hair.

But observable traits, or “phenotypes,” depend on more than just genetic makeup. They depend just as much, or perhaps more, on environmental effects, necessitating more complex equations.

Dr. John H. McDonald, evolutionary geneticist and retired associate professor from the University of Delaware, said certain teachable examples can oversimplify and misrepresent the way traits are inherited. One such example concerns whether a person’s first or second toe is longer.

A recent Facebook post in a public Ancient Egypt Group includes sketches of different feet with various toe lengths, labeling the feet by supposed ancestry. For instance, Norwegian feet are shown with very small fourth and fifth toes, and Greek feet have a long second toe.

Dudley Joy Morton first evaluated a second longer toe as a medical condition in 1927, calling it “Metatarsus Atavicus.” Further research revealed more about the prevalence and nature of the condition, now known as Morton’s toe or Greek toe.

Early studies of the “human toe formula” posited a single-gene form of inheritance, but a 1973 study from Cathleen C. Papdopoulos and Albert Damon produced findings to the contrary. The researchers proposed “polygenic inheritance” — when a trait is determined by a collection of genes — and their findings show that longer second toes are found throughout the world. While the condition’s prevalence does appear to vary, it is generally found in approximately 10%-30% of individuals in various populations, not unique to one particular ethnic group.


__________________________________

 

Foot Disorders: Is Race a Factor?

2018

https://cliftonfootandankle.com/2018/02/foot-disorders-is-race-a-factor/

A 2010 study out of the University of North Carolina School of Medicine had some interesting findings about African Americans’ foot health. The study followed common foot disorders of individuals from various racial backgrounds over 5 years. Researchers then culled statistical information specific to race. Some of their findings include the following:

    Tailor’s bunions (“bunionettes”) are five times more likely to affect whites than blacks
    The incidence of high arches is much more prevalent in whites than blacks
    Among those aged 45 or older, African Americans had three times the rate of corns and flat feet
    With obesity removed as a factor, bunions and hammertoes were twice as prevalent in blacks as in whites. Obesity leveled out the incidence of these two foot deformities in the two races, however.

__________________________________

Racial/Ethnic and Socioeconomic Differences in Bone Loss Among Men

2014

https://asbmr.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/jbmr.2305

ABSTRACT

 

As men age, they lose bone and are susceptible to fracture. Despite having lower fracture rates than women, men have worse fractures than women do. Racial/ethnic and socioeconomic status (SES) disparities in fracture rates exist, yet data on rates of bone loss by race/ethnicity and SES among men are limited. We examined annualized percentage change in bone mineral density (%ΔBMD) at the hip (N = 681), spine (N = 663), and forearm (N = 636) during 7 years of follow‐up among men aged 30–79 years at baseline. Multivariable models tested whether race/ethnicity, income, or genetic ancestry predicted annualized %ΔBMD after controlling for an extensive set of covariates. Annualized %ΔBMD ranged from −0.65(0.04)% (femoral neck) to +0.26(0.03)% (1/3 distal radius), and changes were consistent across age groups with the exception of the ultradistal radius, where annualized declines increased with age. Neither self‐identified race/ethnicity nor genetic ancestry were associated with annualized %ΔBMD. In contrast, income was strongly associated (dose‐response) with annualized %ΔBMD at total hip (independent of confounders, self‐identified race/ethnicity, and genetic ancestry). Fully adjusted least‐square mean change in annualized %ΔBMD at the total hip were −0.24(0.12)% and −0.16(0.06)% steeper among men with low and moderate incomes, respectively, than among men with higher incomes (overall p = 0.0293). Results show a linear decline in bone that begins relatively early in life among men, that rates of bone loss do not vary with race/ethnicity (self‐identified or “objectively” measured), and that income plays an important role in relation to bone loss at the hip. These data suggest that fracture risk in men may be driven in part by income‐related differences in bone loss, but also, that the known higher fracture risk among white men is not the result of racial/ethnic differences in bone loss, but rather, early life exposures that lead to attainment of higher peak bone mass among minorities. © 2014 American Society for Bone and Mineral Research.

__________________________________

Ape Fracture Patterns Show Higher Incidence in More Arboreal Species

2012

Abstract

In the following study, the Hamann-Todd Osteological Collection at the Cleveland Museum of Natural History was examined to compare long bone fracture incidence among wildshot chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes), gibbons (Hylobates lar), and lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla). The initial hypothesis was that the more arboreal species, the chimpanzees and gibbons, would have greater incidence of longbone fractures as a consequence of spending more time in an arboreal environment and the associated increased risk of falling.

http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/799/ape-fracture-patterns-show-higher-incidence-in-more-arboreal-species



__________________________________

Racial differences in tendon rupture incidence


https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17357966/


__________________________________

 

 Epidemiology of tendon and ligament injuries in Aotearoa/New Zealand between 2010 and 2016

February 10, 2020

https://injepijournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40621-020-0231-x

Abstract

Background

Injuries to tendons and ligaments make up a large portion of musculoskeletal injuries, and contribute to significant morbidity and healthcare costs. However, there is currently a poor understanding of the burden of these injuries at a population level.

The purpose of this study was to quantify the burden and distribution of tendon and ligament injuries in the Aotearoa/New Zealand population.

Methods

Using the Accident Compensation Corporation (ACC, a no fault comprehensive compensation scheme encompassing all of Aotearoa/New Zealand; population in 2013 4.4 million) database, data specific to tendon and ligament injuries were identified between July 2010 and June 2016. The total number of claims made and the total cost of these claims per financial year were analyzed. Injuries were categorized by anatomical site, gender, ethnicity and age of the claimant.

Results

During the 6-year study period, the total number of tendon and ligament injury claims was 1,112,077, with a total cost of over $1.4 billion NZD. There was a 16.2% increase in the number of claims, and a 40% increase in the total cost of these injuries during this period.

The majority of claims were made by people of European ethnicity, whilst the number of claims made by people of Asian ethnicity increased at the greatest rate; 52% (from 9047 claims in 2011) during the 6-year study period. Interestingly, Māori (Indigenous New Zealanders) maintained the highest average cost per claim ($1614.05 NZD); 13% more than the overall average cost per claim ($1262.12 NZD). The most common sites of injury were the shoulder and knee; these injuries were also the greatest contributors to overall cost. The total costs of injuries peaked in claimants aged 40–54, irrespective of the number of claims made for that age group.

__________________________________

Can Your Foot Shape Reveal Your Personality or Your Ancestry? Learn More

2019

https://www.healthline.com/health/types-of-feet

__________________________________

 

Can Foot Shape Ancestry Reveal Anything About Your Origins?

https://atlasbiomed.com/blog/can-foot-shape-ancestry-reveal-anything-about-your-origins/

 

__________________________________


Discover Your Ancestors Origins From The Shape Of Your Feet


http://dailynewsdig.com/discover-familys-origins-shape-feet/

 

A study claims you can tell your heritage from the shape of your feet, so take a look and discover where your ancestors originally came from.

Skeptical? Then here are some facts that can help support the feet shape / roots relation.

 

Fact 1: Human genome determine several physical factors as skin, hair and eye color, shape of body and limbs, and so many more from baldness to disease tendencies.

 

Fact 2: Human Morphology is heritage dependent. (anthropometry)

 

Fact 3: There are other studies that revealed endemic tribal / family characteristics, like lack of fingerprints (adermatoglyphia) E.g.: in an outstanding number of Basque peoples.

 

Fact 4: We must consider mixed origins, since almost all races have mixed along the past 500 years. Very few and rare are the supposed “pure” lineages.

 

But that’s not all. There is more to discovering your ancestors origins.

 

According to author Jane Sheehan who wrote “Let’s read Our Feet” indicates more than your origin.

“It’s all about analyzing the structure and texture and imbalances of the feet to understand someone’s emotions and personality,” she says.

“When you are angry, how do you walk? When you are happy, how do you walk? When you are depressed, how do you walk? Each of these emotions has it’s corresponding walk. Over time you can see their impact on the feet.

“Of course, it’s not just about emotions – each of these walks also has a physiological aspect too. But I’m most interested in emotions and personality.”

Ms Sheehan offered this summary to the UK’s The Telegraph .

Long second toe

 
Indicates leadership qualities. Rulers from ancient Egyptian and Hawaiian royal dynasties all had long second toes. You need to be in charge.

Last joint of third toe at an angle

 
You have the natural ability to deceive, as well as the propensity to be misunderstood. Frequently to be found in spies.

Extra-small little toe

 
Denotes a childlike nature, with playful sense of fun.

Second toe on left foot leaning towards big toe

 
Sign of a sentimental, nostalgic nature. Shared by Hollywood actor Reece Witherspoon.

Little toe pointing at an angle

 
Denotes unconventional nature. Being able to waggle your little toe indicates restlessness and a need for constant change.

__________________________________

 

 

 

 

 

__________________________________

Frequency of foot disorders differs between African-Americans and whites

2010

https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/11/101108151420.htm


Summary:
    Common foot disorders such as flat feet, corns and bunions are more prevalent among African-Americans than in whites, a new study has found.


__________________________________

Racial differences in foot disorders and foot type

https://www.academia.edu/33182051/Racial_differences_in_foot_disorders_and_foot_type



__________________________________

Are the knee and ankle angles at contact related to the tendon properties of lower limbs in long distance runners?

2016

https://springerplus.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s40064-016-1797-1



__________________________________



The Kenyan advantage: is it calf elasticity?

2013

A recent study has found Kenyan athletes have more elastic calf muscles than non-athletic whites. Is this behind their success?


https://www.theguardian.com/sport/blog/2013/feb/05/kenyan-advantage-calf-elasticity


__________________________________

HUMAN SPRINTERS HAVE LONGER FOREFEET AND SHORTER PLANTARFLEXOR MOMENT ARMS

2018

http://www.asbweb.org/conferences/2011/pdf/29.pdf


INTRODUCTION Effective sprinting, whether performed to win a race or   to   outrun   predator   or   prey,   requires   rapid   acceleration  from  rest.    The  forward  impulse  that  determines   this   acceleration   depends   on   large   forward-directed   contact   force   and   contact   time   sufficient  for  that  force  to  act.    The  best  animal  sprinters have limb structures that are favorable for generating large forward impulses.  The cheetah, for example,  has  longer  toes  and  metatarsals  and  a  shorter  plantarflexor  moment  arm  (pfMA)  than  are  found  in  less  capable  sprinters  of  similar  size.    These differences contribute to the cheetah having a large “gear ratio” (ratio of the ground reaction force moment arm to the moment arm of the plantarflexor about the ankle), which enables the plantarflexors to operate  at  a  lower  shortening  velocity  and  thus  maintain muscle force production near toe-off. It  is  less  clear,  however,  whether  variation  in  foot  and  ankle  structure  within  species,  and  specifically  among    humans,    might    explain    differences    in    sprinting  ability.    Lee  and  Piazza  [4]  found  that  human   sprinters’   moment   arms   estimated   from   Achilles    tendon    excursion    were    significantly    smaller  than  those  of  height-matched  non-sprinters,  but  it  is  unclear  whether  those  measurements  of  tendon  excursion  were  affected  by  differences  in  tendon  compliance  between  the  two  groups.    Lee  and  Piazza  also  found  sprinters  to  have  longer  toes  as  indicated  by  external  measurements  made  from the first metatarsal head to the end of the great toe,  and  the  extent  to  which  these  measurements  were    affected    by    errors    in    identifying    bony    landmarks or by differences in soft tissue thickness is not clear.  Scholz et al. and Raichlen et al. did  not  study  sprinters,  but  did  identify  a  link  between  human  foot  structure  and  function;  both  groups  reported  that  running  economy  negatively

correlates   with   calcaneal   tuber   (heel)   length   in   trained distance runners. The  purpose  of  this  study  was  to  use  magnetic  resonance (MR) imaging of the Achilles tendon and the  bones  of  the  foot  to  determine  whether  the  foot  and ankle structure of trained sprinters differs from that   of   non-sprinters.      We   hypothesized   that   sprinters    would    have    longer    phalanges    and    metatarsals  but  have  shorter  pfMA  than  those  of  non-sprinters.



__________________________________



Ankle joint mechanics and foot proportions differ between human sprinters and non-sprinters

2011

https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2011.2358


Abstract

Recent studies of sprinters and distance runners have suggested that variations in human foot proportions and plantarflexor muscle moment arm correspond to the level of sprint performance or running economy. Less clear, however, is whether differences in muscle moment arm are mediated by altered tendon paths or by variation in the centre of ankle joint rotation. Previous measurements of these differences have relied upon assumed joint centres and measurements of bone geometry made externally, such that they would be affected by the thickness of the overlying soft tissue. Using magnetic resonance imaging, we found that trained sprinters have shorter plantarflexor moment arms (p = 0.011) and longer forefoot bones (p = 0.019) than non-sprinters. The shorter moment arms of sprinters are attributable to differences in the location of the centre of rotation (p < 0.001) rather than to differences in the path of the Achilles tendon. A simple computer model suggests that increasing the ratio of forefoot to rearfoot length permits more plantarflexor muscle work during plantarflexion that occurs at rates expected during the acceleration phase following the sprint start.


__________________________________


Relationship between Achilles tendon properties and foot strike patterns in long-distance runners

2014

https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02640414.2014.962576


__________________________________


Energy cost of running and Achilles tendon stiffness in man and woman trained runners

2013

https://physoc.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/phy2.178%4010.1002/%28ISSN%292051-817X%28CAT%29WomeninPhysiology%28VI%29GenderAge


__________________________________


Sexual dimorphism in foot length proportionate to stature

2004

http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/anthro/faculty/fessler/pubs/AHBFootSizeDimorphism.pdf


__________________________________

EXTERNAL FOOT SHAPE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN
MALES AND FEMALES AND AMONG RACES

1999

http://www.asbweb.org/conferences/1990s/1999/116/index.html

 

__________________________________



Female hormones: do they influence muscle and tendon protein metabolism?

2017

https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/proceedings-of-the-nutrition-society/article/female-hormones-do-they-influence-muscle-and-tendon-protein-metabolism/0D0A155C16C4A640C1C9E6FDAFA973D6


__________________________________


Find Out What The Shape Of Your Toes Tell About Your Personality

http://tophealthnews.net/find-out-what-the-shape-of-your-toes-tells-about-your-personality/


__________________________________


7 Types of Toes, and the Secrets They Reveal About Your Personality!

2019

https://www.cosmopolitan.in/life/features/a11178/7-types-toes-and-secrets-they-reveal-about-your-personality


__________________________________


Ethnic differences in triceps surae muscle-tendon complex and walking economy


2006


https://journals.lww.com/nsca-jscr/Abstract/2006/08000/Ethnic_Differences_in_Triceps_Surae_Muscle_Tendon.9.aspx



Abstract

ABSTRACT

The purposes of this study were to (a) determine whether structural differences in triceps surae muscle-tendon complex and walking economy exist between 14 African American and 19 Caucasian sedentary women and (b) determine whether muscle-tendon parameters are associated with walking economy. African American and Caucasian subjects were matched on body weight, height, and body composition. Muscle-tendon parameters were determined by magnetic resonance imaging and walking economy was evaluated at 4.8 km ·h−1. Medial gastrocnemius and total triceps surae muscle shape were different across ethnicity despite no ethnic differences in plantar flexion strength or in maximal cross-sectional area for any triceps surae muscles. African American women had shorter gastrocnemius muscles and longer tendons and performed walking more economically. Tendon length was the only variable related to walking economy. No ethnic differences were observed in walking economy after adjusting for tendon length. Data show gastrocnemius tendon length is related to level walking and longer gastrocnemius tendons may partly explain more economical walking in African American women. These preliminary findings indicate the structure of the muscle-tendon complex could be a factor partially accounting for reported ethnic differences in certain types of athletic-related performance.




__________________________________



Racial Differences in the Palmaris Longus

2019

https://notpoliticallycorrect.me/2019/03/17/racial-differences-in-the-palmaris-longus/


There are many physical differences between racial/ethnic groups. Some of these differences are obvious to the naked eye, others much less so. One racial difference that exists is variation in having a tendon called the palmaris longus (PL). This muscle rests between the flexor carpi radialis and the flexor carpi urinalis. The radius and ulna are bones in the forearm. The radius supports the lateral (thumb) side of the hand whereas the ulna supports the medial (pinky) side; they enable wrist rotation. To see if you have the tendon, take your pinky and touch it to your thumb. If you have the tendon you should see it poking out of your wrist. Fourteen percent of the population lacks the PL, but there is considerable variation by race. These differences, of course, have should be taken into account when doing a tendon graph operation.

The action that the PL performs is flexing the wrist; the origin is the medial epicondyle of the humerus; it inserts in the palmar aponeurosis and flexor rentinaculum of the hand. The antagonist muscles are extensor carpi radialis brevis, extensor carpi radialis longus, and extensor carpi urinalis.

There are unilateral (affecting one side of the body) differences in the variation of this tendon along with bilateral (affecting both sides of the body) differences. There is differential absence of the tendon depending on which hand is dominant (Eric et al, 2011). The tendon also has been found to contribute to the strength of thumb abuction (Gangata, Ndou, and Louw, 2013). However, it has been shown that whether or not one has the PL or not does not contribute to grip/pinch strength (Sebastin et al, 2005).


In their sample of 516, 415 were Caucasian, 55 were African American, 35 were Asian and 11 were mixed race. The age range was 12-94, while an even number of men and women were tested (288, 288). Soltani et al (2012) write:

    There were no differences in the absence of the PL based on laterality. The right side was absent in 11.8% and left 12.0% of the time (see Table 1). Further, there were no differences in the absence of the PL based on gender,  value 0.369 (see Table 2). Ethnically, there was no difference in the absence of the PL between White (non-Hispanic) and White (Hispanic) patients, with prevalence of 14.9% and 13.1%, respectively. However, African American (4.5%) and Asian (2.9%) patients had significantly fewer absences of the PL than the Hispanic reference group.


__________________________________

Ruptured Tendons in Anabolic-Androgenic Steroid Users: A Cross-Sectional Cohort Study

2015

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5206906/


__________________________________


Racial differences in tendon rupture incidence

2007

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17357966/


__________________________________

 

 Racial Differences in Tendon Rupture Incidence

May 12, 2006

https://www.brettowensmd.com/assets/risk-factors-for-achilles-tendon-rupture-identified.pdf


__________________________________


Incidence of Major Tendon Ruptures and Anterior Cruciate Ligament Tears in US Army Soldiers

https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a627861.pdf


__________________________________


The Variation in the Absence of the Palmaris Longus in a Multiethnic Population of the United States: An Epidemiological Study

2012

https://www.hindawi.com/journals/psi/2012/282959/

Abstract

 

The absence of the palmaris longus (PL) has been shown to vary based on body side, gender, and ethnicity. In prior studies, homogenous ethnic populations have been shown to have differences in rates of absence. However, no study thus far has analyzed the differences in palmaris longus prevalence in a multiethnic population. We prospectively collected data on 516 patients visiting the outpatient hand clinics at LAC+USC Medical Center and Keck Medical Center. Analysis of the data was then performed for variables including ethnicity, laterality, and gender. There were no differences in the absence of the PL based on laterality or gender. Ethnically, there was no difference between white (non-Hispanic) and white (Hispanic) patients, with prevalence of 14.9% and 13.1%, respectively. However, African American (4.5%) and Asian (2.9%) patients had significantly fewer absences of the PL than the Caucasian, Hispanic reference group (P = 0.005 and P = 0.008, resp.). African Americans and Asians have a decreased prevalence of an absent PL. The Caucasian population has a relatively greater prevalence of an absence of the PL. This epidemiological study demonstrates the anatomic variation in this tendon and may be taken into account when planning an operation using tendon grafts.

__________________________________

Ethnic radiographic foot differences

2009

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19176187/

 Results: A total of 237 feet in 126 patients (45 African Americans, 59 Caucasians, and 22 Hispanics) were studied. Statistically significant differences were found in the CP, LTCA, and MS. African Americans have significantly lower CP than Caucasians (p < 0.0001). African Americans have significantly lower CP than Hispanics (p < 0.0016). Caucasians have significantly higher TCA than African Americans (p < 0.0004). Males have a larger MS than females (p < 0.0001).

Conclusion: There are differences in the radiographic morphology of feet among different ethnic groups. A larger prospective community-based study of morphological differences is needed for better understanding of the genetic and environmental factors influencing the prevalence of foot and ankle conditions.


__________________________________



Longer tendons make faster runners, suggests UAB research

July 26, 2011

https://www.uab.edu/news/research/item/1489-longer-tendons-make-faster-runners-suggests-uab-research


__________________________________


ESTIMATION OF STATURE FROM LONG BONES OF AMERICAN WHITES AND NEGROES

http://www.references.260mb.com/Estatura/Trotter1952.pdf?i=1


__________________________________

 

Differences in Skeletal Microarchitecture and Strength in African-American and Caucasian Women

2013

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3779478/



Abstract

African-American women have a lower risk of fracture than Caucasian women, and this difference is only partially explained by differences in DXA areal bone mineral density (aBMD). Little is known about racial differences in skeletal microarchitecture and the consequences for bone strength. To evaluate potential factors underlying this racial difference in fracture rates, we used high-resolution peripheral quantitative computed tomography (HR-pQCT) to assess cortical and trabecular bone microarchitecture and estimate bone strength using micro-finite element analysis in African-American (n=100) and Caucasian (n=173) women participating in the Study of Women's Health Across the Nation (SWAN). African-American women had larger and denser bones than Caucasians, with greater total area, aBMD, and total volumetric BMD (vBMD) at the radius and tibia metaphysis (p<0.05 for all). African-Americans had greater trabecular vBMD at the radius, but higher cortical vBMD at the tibia. Cortical microarchitecture tended to show the most pronounced racial differences, with higher cortical area, thickness, and volumes in African-Americans at both skeletal sites (p<0.05 for all), and lower cortical porosity in African-Americans at the tibia (p<0.05). African-American women also had greater estimated bone stiffness and failure load at both the radius and tibia. Differences in skeletal microarchitecture and estimated stiffness and failure load persisted even after adjustment for DXA aBMD. The densitometric and microarchitectural predictors of failure load at the radius and tibia were the same in African-American and Caucasian women. In conclusion, differences in bone microarchitecture and density contribute to greater estimated bone strength in African-Americans and probably explain, at least in part, the lower fracture risk of African-American women.


__________________________________



Racial and Ethnic Differences in the Management of Pain Among Children Diagnosed with Long Bone Fractures in Pediatric Emergency Departments

August 2019


https://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/144/2_MeetingAbstract/413


Purpose: 

 

Racial/ethnic disparities in the management of pain among children in the emergency department (ED) setting have been previously documented. Because long bone fractures are commonly managed in the ED setting, we performed this multi-institutional study to test the hypotheses that minority children (non-Hispanic [NH] black, Hispanic, Other) with long bone fractures are 1) less likely to receive analgesics, 2) less likely to receive opioids, and 3) less likely to achieve pain reduction than NH white children. Methods: We performed a retrospective cohort study of children ≤21 years with an ICD9/10 diagnosis code or natural language processing of radiologic studies diagnosing long bone fracture (clavicle, humerus, ulna, radius, femur, tibia, fibula) using the Pediatric Emergency Care Applied Research Network (PECARN) Registry, a de-identified electronic health record registry of all encounters to 7 pediatric EDs from July 1, 2014 through June 30, 2017. We included patients with ESI triage levels of 2 through 4, and those with moderate or severe pain scores (pain scores 4-10 on 10-point scale). We performed bivariable analyses and multivariable logistic regression to examine the association between patient race/ethnicity and 3 outcomes: receipt of any analgesia; receipt of opioid analgesia; and pain reduction of at-least 2 points. Covariates included age, gender, insurance status, triage category, year, ED site, ED disposition, and initial pain score. Results: Of 39,580 pediatric ED encounters for long bone fractures, 21,642 met inclusion criteria. Of those, 85.1% received any analgesia and 41.5% received opioid analgesia. Of the 11,035 patients with reassessment of pain score, 57.6% had at-least a 2-point reduction in pain score documented. In multivariable analyses, NH-black (aOR 1.58; 95% CI 1.39, 1.81) and Hispanic (aOR 1.23; 95% CI 1.08, 1.39) were more likely to receive any analgesia when compared to NH-white children. However, minority children were less likely to receive opioid analgesia when compared to NH-white children (NH-black: aOR 0.7 [95% CI 0.69, 0.85]; Hispanic: aOR 0.72 [95% CI 0.65, 0.81]. There were no racial/ethnic differences in reduction in pain score. Conclusions: Less than half of children presenting to the pediatric ED in moderate-to-severe pain from long bone fractures received opioid analgesia. Although minority children were more likely to receive any analgesia, minority children were less likely to receive opioid analgesia, even after adjustment for pain score and ESI level. However, there were no racial and ethnic differences in achievement of pain reduction. Future studies should seek to understand and address racial and ethnic differences in the use of opioid analgesia.


__________________________________




Exploratory Evidence of Sex-Dimorphic Associations of the Ulna-to-Fibula Ratio, a Potential Marker of Pubertal Sex Steroid Exposure, with the Implicit Need for Power

March 17, 2020

https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40750-020-00130-8


__________________________________



Evaluation of Nutrient Foramen of the Femur, Tibia, and Fibula Bones in Center of Iran

2018

https://go.gale.com/ps/anonymous?id=GALE%7CA581423944&sid=googleScholar&v=2.1&it=r&linkaccess=abs&issn=17352967&p=AONE&sw=w


__________________________________




ANTERIOR FEMORAL CURVATURE: ITS UTILITY FOR RACE IDENTIFICATION

February 1962

https://www.jstor.org/stable/41448530?seq=1


__________________________________


Radiographic Assessment of Fibular Length Variance: The Case for “Fibula Minus”

January 01, 2018

https://www.jfas.org/article/S1067-2516(17)30501-X/fulltext


__________________________________



A Study on the Absence of Palmaris Longus in a Multi-racial Population

2007

http://morthoj.org/2007v1n1/absence_Palmaris_Longus.pdf


ABSTRACT

Palmaris longus is a dispensable muscle with a long tendonwhich is very useful in reconstructive surgery. It is absent 2.8 to 24% of the population depending on the race/ethnicity studied.  Four  hundred  and  fifty  healthy  subjects  (equally distributed  among  Malaysia’s  3  major  ethnic  groups)  were clinically examined for the presence or absence of palmarislongus.    This  tendon  was  found  to  be  absent  unilaterally  in 6.4%  of  study  subjects,  and  bilaterally  in  2.9%  of  study participants.    Malays  have  a  high  prevalence  of  palmarislongus  absence  at  11.3%  followed  closely  by  Indians  at 10.7% whilst Chinese had a low absence rate of 6.0%.



__________________________________




What’s the difference between muscles, tendons and ligaments?

January 30, 2018

Physiotherapist Dominic Richmond of CapitalPhysio.com explains the difference between the three most common soft tissue types; muscles, tendons, and ligaments and the most common types of injuries associated with them


https://www.220triathlon.com/training/injuries/what-s-the-difference-between-muscles-tendons-and-ligaments/


__________________________________

The Anterior Cruciate Ligament Tear Rate Varies by Race in Professional Women's Basketball

July 2006

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/7299916_The_Anterior_Cruciate_Ligament_Tear_Rate_Varies_by_Race_in_Professional_Women's_Basketball

__________________________________



The difference in anatomy of the lumbar anterior longitudinal ligament in young african-americans and scandinavians

December 1998

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0003999398904178


Abstract

Objective: To examine possible structural differences in the lumbar anterior longitudinal ligament between young African-American and Scandinavian people.

 

Design: The lumbar anterior longitudinal ligament was examined in 48 African-American and Scandinavian young men and women (17 to 30 years old). Apart from the selection of gender, age, height, and weight, all subjects were recruited consecutively during routine forensic autopsies. Sections of the ligament were obtained from the L1 and the L5 vertebra for thickness and width measurements and histologic preparations. The measurements were performed with a digital vernier caliper with an accuracy of 0.1mm.

 

Results: The width of the L1 part of the lumbar anterior longitudinal ligament in the African-American group (27.5 ± 1.8mm) was greater than that in the Scandinavian group (17.7 ± 1.5mm) (p < .001), and the thickness of the L1 part in the African-American group (3.8 ± 0.4mm) was greater than that in the Scandinavian group (3.3 ± 0.3mm) (p < .001). The width of the L5 part in the African-American group (34.1 ± 2.0mm) was greater than that in the Scandinavian group (25.0 ± 1.5mm) (p < .001), and the thickness of the L5 part in the African-American group (3.3 ± 0.3mm) was greater than that in the Scandinavian group (2.2 ± 0.3mm) (p < .001). The cross-sectional area was greater in the African-American group in both sections (L1, African-American 106.4 ± 13.7mm2 vs Scandinavian 52.8 ± 7.9mm²; L5, African-American 112.2 ± 14.6mm² vs Scandinavian 55.6 ± 6.7mm²) (p < .001). No histologic differences between the two groups were observed.

 

Conclusions: The lumbar anterior longitudinal ligament was considerably wider and thicker, which yielded a markedly greater cross-sectional area, in African-American than in Scandinavian subjects. In contrast, the ligament appears to be histologically similar in the two groups. These are previously unrecognized differences in anatomy between young African-American and Scandinavian people.

__________________________________

Achilles Tendon Ruptures Stratified by Age, Race, and Cause of Injury among Active Duty U.S. Military Members

January 2000

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/12686503_Achilles_Tendon_Ruptures_Stratified_by_Age_Race_and_Cause_of_Injury_among_Active_Duty_US_Military_Members

Abstract

A total of 865 members of the U.S. military underwent repair of Achilles tendon ruptures at U.S. military hospitals during calendar years 1994, 1995, and 1996. The discharge summaries of these patients were analyzed for patient demographic information, including age, race, and causative activity. Patients were then stratified by age, race, and cause of injury. Blacks were at increased risk for undergoing repair of the Achilles tendon compared with nonblacks (overall relative risk = 4.15, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 3.63, 4.74; summary odds ratio controlling for age = 3.69, CI = 3.25, 4.19). Participation in the game of basketball accounted for 64.9% of all injuries in black patients and 34.0% of all injuries in nonblack patients. Among those injured, blacks had a significantly increased risk for injury related to playing basketball than nonblacks (relative risk = 1.82, CI = 1.58, 2.10). This finding suggests that there may be other predisposing factor(s) that result in a higher risk of Achilles tendon ruptures in black individuals.


__________________________________




Ethnic differences in bone geometry between White, Black and South Asian men in the UK

Oct 2016

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5004623/


__________________________________

These feet were made for walking: upright and long distances

2/26/2009

New fossil footprints found near Ileret, Kenya clarify the picture of early …


https://arstechnica.com/science/2009/02/these-feet-were-made-for-walking-upright-and-long-distances/

__________________________________



Skeletal differences between black and white men and their relevance to body composition estimates

1994

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ajhb.1310060215


__________________________________

Racialized Osteology and Athletic Aptitude, or “Black” Bones as Red Herrings

2019

https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5406/jsporthistory.46.3.0325


__________________________________

Anthropologists Disagree About Race and Bones

January 7, 2006

https://abcnews.go.com/Technology/story?id=98485&page=1



__________________________________



Ethnic differences in bone and mineral metabolism in healthy people and patients with CKD

June 01, 2014

https://www.kidney-international.org/article/S0085-2538(15)56355-2/fulltext


__________________________________


Racial Differences in Bone Density between Young Adult Black and White Subjects Persist after Adjustment for Anthropometric, Lifestyle, and Biochemical Differences

1997

https://academic.oup.com/jcem/article/82/2/429/2823249

 

_____________________________________

_____________________________________

__________________________________

__________________________________

__________________________________


Section 21: Hands & Genetics

__________________________________

__________________________________

__________________________________

_____________________________________

_____________________________________

 

Fingerprints reveal whether you're black or white: Distinctive patterns show whether a person is of African or European descent

2015

https://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-3253295/Fingerprints-reveal-black-white-Distinctive-patterns-person-African-European-descent.html


__________________________________



Sex and race differences in finger ridge‐count correlations

 January 1977

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ajpa.1330460122


Abstract

Correlations between ridge‐counts on the ten fingers were compared by race and sex in 11 samples representing Negroes and Caucasians: five from subsaharan Africa, one American Black, three European, one American White and one from India. The samples of European ancestry showed no consistent sex difference in mean correlation, although female American Whites significantly exceeded males. In three of the six Negro samples and in the Parsis of India males showed significantly higher average correlations than females. The pattern of sex and race differences suggests that the sex chromosomes, particularly the Y chromosome, play a role in dermal ridge development.



__________________________________



Why Most Men's Ring Fingers Are So Long

2011

Finger length linked to aggression, musical ability, sexual orientation.

https://www.nationalgeographic.com/news/2011/9/110907-ring-finger-length-science-genes-sex-hormones-men-women/



__________________________________

Are fingerprints linked with ethnicity/race?

http://fingerprints.handresearch.com/dermatoglyphics/fingerprints-ethnic-differences-races.htm


__________________________________

Fingerprints can reveal race and sex

2007

https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1559302/Fingerprints-can-reveal-race-and-sex.html


__________________________________

Sexuality: Your Telltale Fingertips

How your hands are a marker for behavior. Relative finger length—or digit ratio—is a marker for brain differences molded by hormones.

2005

https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/articles/200507/sexuality-your-telltale-fingertips


__________________________________


Digit Ratio: Finger Length and Testosterone


https://www.testofuel.com/tf/digit-ratio-finger-length-and-testosterone/


__________________________________



Sex and Race Differences in the Relative Lengths of Metacarpals and Metatarsals in Human Skeletons

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2649659/


__________________________________

 

Nine Different Types of Fingerprints

2019

https://legalbeagle.com/7287158-nine-different-types-fingerprints.html

 

__________________________________

Does Hand Size Actually Correlate to Penis Size?

2016

https://www.snopes.com/fact-check/hand-size-trump-debate/


__________________________________

 

The 20 Different Kinds of Penises You'll Probably (Definitely) Encounter In Life

Sep 9, 2020

https://www.womenshealthmag.com/sex-and-love/a19991178/different-penis-types/

 

__________________________________

 

 
Androgens, Dodgy Penis Size Data, and Differential-K Theory
Can crude statistics validate suspect racial data on penis sizes? No.

Feb 13, 2016

https://www.psychologytoday.com/sg/blog/unique-everybody-else/201602/androgens-dodgy-penis-size-data-and-differential-k-theory

 

__________________________________

 

Does Vagina Size Matter?

https://www.webmd.com/women/features/vagina-size#1

__________________________________

 

Penis Size Linked to Length of Fingers

Researchers Find Association Between Penile Length and Ratio of Length of Men's Fingers

2011

https://www.webmd.com/men/news/20110705/study-penis-size-linked-to-length-of-fingers


__________________________________

 

5 Things a Man's Finger Length Says About Him

 

2015

https://www.livescience.com/49883-finger-length-in-men.html

 _________________________________

Research reveals the link between primate knuckles and hand use

May 29, 2019

https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2019/05/190529122145.htm


Research carried out by the University of Kent has found differences between the knuckle joints of primates that will enable a better understanding of ancient human hand use.

Using samples from the Powell-Cotton Museum in Birchington-on-Sea (UK), as well as samples from Germany, Belgium and the USA, a team led by School of Anthropology and Conservation (SAC) PhD student Christopher Dunmore examined the internal bone structure, called trabeculae or cancellous bone, of great apes.

Trabecular bone is a honeycomb structure that is found within most bones and changes depending on what that bone is used for during a lifetime. When it is preserved in fossils, researchers can learn more about how ancient apes as well as humans moved and interacted with their environment.

The study compared the internal bone structure of the knuckle joints in chimpanzee, bonobo, orangutan and gorilla hands, to assess whether this bone structure records how these apes moved when knuckle-walking on the ground or hanging from trees.

The researchers found the knuckle joints of orang-utans were consistent with flexing the knuckles while grasping branches, while the joints of chimpanzees, bonobos and gorillas were consistent with knuckle-walking -- the most frequent ways in which these animals move around in their respective environments.

The information will now enable scientists studying fossils to better understand whether ancient humans were swinging from trees or walking on the ground.

Mr Dunmore said: "For the first time we see interesting internal bone patterns differentiating subtle differences between chimpanzee and gorilla knuckle-walking, as well as arboreal grasping in orang-utans. This matters because when we find ancient human hand fossils that preserve their internal structure, we can work out if they were probably swinging from trees during their lifetime or if they were walking on the ground more like humans today."

The study, entitled Metacarpal trabecular bone varies with distinct hand-positions used in hominid locomotion (Christopher Dunmore, Dr Ameline Bardo, Professor Tracy Kivell and Dr Matthew Skinner, Skeletal Biology Research Centre, SAC, University of Kent) was published in the Journal of Anatomy.



__________________________________



Fingernail Growth Rate and Macroelement Levels Determined by ICP-OES in Healthy Chinese College Students

2011

http://www.pjoes.com/pdf-88841-22700?filename=Fingernail%20Growth%20Rate.pdf


__________________________________

Racial differences in nitrogen content of nails among adolescents

1977

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/851076/


Abstract

Ectodermal derivatives provide a readily accessible means of chemically evaluating body protein composition. Therefore, it has been postulated that the analysis of nail nitrogen content may reflect recent nutritional status. Assessment of nail nitrogen content has been previously reported in a small group of neonates and school children. The present study was undertaken to determine if standards for nail nitrogen content could be established for adolescents which could then be used in the assessment of protein nutritional status. Nail clippings were obtained from 118 economically indigent urban black youth, 10 black and 39 white subjects from wealthy suburban communities in the New York area, and 10 poor white-Indian adolescents residing within a barrio in Lima, Peru. Nail samples were analyzed for protein content using the micro Kjeldahl technique. Mean nail nitrogen content for wealthy suburban and impoverished urban black youth was 136 and 137 mg N/g of nail, respectively. Values for poor Peruvian white-Indian and affluent suburban white adolescents were 142 and 141 mg N/g of nail, respectively. The differences between ethnic groups were significant using t test analysis at a P value of less than 0.001. No differences, however, were found between either wealthy and poor of the same racial background or when the data were analyzed by gender. These results suggest that differences in nail nitrogen content are at least in part a reflection of ethnicity. These racial differences must be considered in assessing nutritional status by nail nitrogen analysis.


__________________________________

COMPARISON OF FINGER NAILS IN NEGROES AND WHITE PERSONS

January 1950

https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamadermatology/article-abstract/522322


__________________________________

When A Patient Presents With Longitudinal Nail Pigmentation

May 23, 2012


Longitudinal pigmentation of the nail is a common presenting problem in general podiatry. However, it is not something the patient always brings to your attention. You need to look for it.

   A 45-year-old African-American female presents to the office with a chief concern of incurvated dark nails with a history of failed treatment for fungal toenails. She recalled that her dermatologist prescribed terbinafine (Lamisil, Novartis) eight months ago but there is still discoloration over the entire nail plate on all of the nails. It turned out that she did not undergo a fungal nail culture prior to the initiation of treatment.

I performed a workup of the patient with a history and physical examination. A nail culture found no evidence of fungal hyphae... 

 

 

https://www.podiatrytoday.com/when-patient-presents-longitudinal-nail-pigmentation

 

__________________________________

Dilemma of Nail Pigmentation

2015

https://www.the-dermatologist.com/content/dilemma-nail-pigmentation


__________________________________



Melanonychia: Etiology, Diagnosis, and Treatment

2020

http://www.idoj.in/article.asp?issn=2229-5178;year=2020;volume=11;issue=1;spage=1;epage=11;aulast=Singal



Definition        

Melanonychia refers to the Greek word “Melas” meaning black (or brown colour) and “Onyx” meaning nail. It is characterized by brown-black discoloration of the nail plate and the pigment referred to is conventionally melanin. It may involve single or multiple nails, both in finger and toenails.


   Epidemiology        

Melanonychia is a common cause of nail discoloration accounting for nearly half of the cases of chromonychia. Longitudinal melanonychia is the commonest morphological pattern. The data on prevalence of melanonychia comes from the studies on melanonychia striata and varies with the region and population of study. In a recent study from China, the prevalence was found to be 0.8%, equal among male and female. While in Poland, melanonychia was observed in 19.46% with the mean age being 49 years, Kawamura et al. reported melanonychia in 11.4% with highest prevalence in people aged 21–26 years and Tasaki et al. found the prevalence to be 20% in males and 23% in females. The number of nails involved and the width of the pigmented lesions differ according to causative factors. While drug exposure, dermatological diseases, and racial pigmentation typically involve multiple nails, lentigines and nail matrix nevus are monodactylic (involving single nail/digit).

 

Morphological Classification

A simple morphological classification of melanonychia is given in

 

 

 

Melanocytic activation

Constitutional

Racial melanonychia

It is commonly encountered in skin phototypes IV, V, and VI, that is, darkly pigmented races including Blacks, Asians, Middle-East, and Hispanics. The incidence reportedly varies from 1% in whites, 10%–20% in Japanese and Asians, and 77–100% in African Americans. Racial melanonychia is more common in fingers (thumb, index finger), generally involves multiple nails [Figure 5] and the band width increasing with age.

__________________________________

The Relationship Between Vitamin D, Fingernail Thickness and Bone Density

September 8, 2000

https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT00006196


__________________________________

 
From white spots and ridges to 'spoon' shapes: Experts reveal the hidden health messages in your nails - and why you should NEVER ignore them

September 30, 2019

https://www.dailymail.co.uk/femail/article-7519487/Australian-experts-reveal-common-nail-problems-say-health.html


__________________________________


Toenails as biomarker of exposure to essential trace metals: A review.

December 2019

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0013935119305845

 
__________________________________


Race, Gender, and Nail Polish

https://www.wcwonline.org/WRB-Issues/race-gender-and-nail-polish


The Managed Hand: Race, Gender, and the Body in Beauty Service Work

By Miliann Kang

Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2010, 309 pp.

Reviewed by Jennifer Jihye Chun

“Two women, virtual strangers, sit hand in hand across a narrow table, both intent on the same thing—the achievement of a perfect manicure,” begins Miliann Kang’s The Managed Hand, her study of Korean immigrant women workers in New York’s nail salons. Her acknowledgment of delight and self-indulgence, however, quickly turns into a sobering account of the everyday inequalities and fraught dynamics of this intimate service exchange. Nail-salon workers did not cross oceans and leave family members because they dreamed of grooming peoples’ hands and feet. Yet the success of ethnic entrepreneurship in this rapidly growing niche market has made nail salon work a familiar path of upward economic mobility for thousands of Korean immigrant women. Similarly, “while no individual woman suddenly wakes up with the idea that manicured nails are central to her identity,” says Kang, this service has become increasingly affordable and accessible to women of all social classes and races in New York’s 3,000-plus nail salons. “Rather than being an end in and of itself,” Kang writes, “nice nails and beauty more broadly are vehicles, albeit flawed and unreliable vehicles, to claim power in work, family, and relationships.”

Kang collected her data at six nail salons of different types in New York City: two upscale salons that cater primarily to upper- and middle-class whites; two nail-art salons that serve primarily African American women; and two discount salons located in shopping malls. In addition to observations of the everyday interactions between customers and nail technicians, Kang’s rich and textured account includes in-depth interviews with Korean immigrant nail salon owners; black and white customers; and various industry, community, and government representatives.

The Managed Hand begins with background information about the rapid growth of the nail-salon industry and the dominance in it of Koreans. One of the earliest ethnic groups in this sector, Korean immigrant women began opening nail salons in New York City in the early 1980s—before the industry became subject to strict licensing regulations in the 1990s. Mary Lee, who opened a nail salon in 1982, explains: “In the beginning anyone could open a nail salon. We just needed a few tables and basic equipment. We just learned as we did it.” Kang quickly dispels the myth that immigrant women such as Lee view nail-salon work as desirable employment. Korean immigrant women—many of whom were highly educated, skilled professionals before moving to the United States—faced severe labor-market barriers due to limited English skills, small social networks, and systemic discrimination. Working in a nail salon served as what Kang calls a “default” choice, preferable only to working in a garment factory or restaurant.

Although nail-salon work is potentially demeaning and requires putting in long hours, many Korean immigrant women learn to live with the trade-offs and “mixed gains,” says Kang. While many never anticipated that they would be washing feet and clipping nails for ten to twelve hours a day, they quickly manage their feelings of humiliation and aversion by reframing beauty service as a valuable form of care work for the elderly, the stressed, and the overworked. It enables them to support their children and send them to college—although the long hours mean that the time they have to spend with their children is extremely limited, a common dilemma for many Korean immigrants who work in greengrocers, liquor stores, and dry cleaners.

Kang’s analysis is anchored in the feminist sociologist Arlie Hochschild’s concept of “body labor.” Commercialized service interactions such as manicures involve not simply bodily care but also the management and exchange of emotion and power. “The manicure is not simply an economic transaction,” says Kang. “It is a symbolic exchange that involves the buying and selling of deference.”

This symbolic exchange is most evident in the upscale salons Kang observed. The white women who frequent them often treat manicures as opportunities to exercise privilege and embody entitlement. Their perfectly shaped and colored nails demonstrate that career success does not require sacrificing feminine beauty. These customers want more than sculpted, painted nails. They wish to be pleased, pampered and served by deferential Asian women, and they strive to extract “extras,” such as lengthy hand and foot massages and a friendly, generous ear for their troubles. They do not want to be reminded of the “otherness” of their manicurists, whether by the lingering smell of kimchi or the difficulty of pronouncing Korean names such as Kyung Ja or Jin Sun—whom they call Kathy or Jenny. While it is not clear from Kang’s account whether the salons’ customer-service policies are determined by ethnic shop owners or the complaints of primarily white customers, Kang characterizes upscale nail salons as active spaces of racial and ethnic assimilation.

In contrast, observes Kang, black women getting hand-painted nails and acrylic tips don’t require pampering from Korean manicurists; instead, their priority is to be treated with respect. In nail-art salons frequented by African American clientele, customers do not demand extras such as hand massages and compliments; rather they seek out salons that provide colorful and creative nail designs, and high quality, durable acrylic tips. Kang attributes the difference, in part, to the fact that many working-class black women get their nails done as a form of self-expression rather than as a vehicle for career or status advancement. Because black customers recognize the professionalism of the Korean manicurists, their relationships are often more congenial and reciprocal than the manicurists’ relationships with whites. However, Kang emphasizes, such cross-racial gender solidarity is fragile and unstable. Prejudice, among both Koreans and blacks, is often simmering beneath the surface, manifesting itself when conflict arises.

The underlying racial conflicts and hostilities plaguing nail-salon interactions is the main focus of Kang’s chapter on “chop shops”—the numerous discount nail salons popping up in suburban shopping malls across the country. In urban neighborhoods, Korean immigrants are stereotyped as racist; in contrast, in suburbia, they are perceived as “dirty.” Providing fast and inexpensive manicures and pedicures to a mass customer base, discount nail salons have come under fire for unsanitary practices, a charge that arises from older perceptions of Asian immigrants as the “yellow peril.” While this chapter lacks the ethnographic depth of previous chapters, it highlights an important new site for future analysis of the intersection of labor migration flows and the rapidly growing service economy.


__________________________________

 

 Manicuring Race, Gender and Class: Service Interactions in New York City Korean-owned Nail Salons

1996

https://www.jstor.org/stable/41674843?seq=1

 

__________________________________

Prevalence and correlates of beta human papillomavirus detection in fingernail samples from mid-adult women

June 2018

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2405852117300332


__________________________________


Anolunula in Fingernails among Patients Infected with HIV

2014

https://www.hindawi.com/journals/isrn/2014/271230/


__________________________________



A comparative study on digit ratio and hand patterns of three ethnic races of Malaysia

September 20, 2018

https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s41935-018-0087-1


Abstract

Background

To distinguish the characteristic hand pattern of each of the three different ethnicities in Malaysia and to study the hand pattern correlation between race and gender.
Method

Individual lengths of the fingers were then measured and tabulated to serve as the basis for analyzing the 2D (second digit):4D (fourth digit) hand ratio. Based on this ration, the hand patterns were classified as A, B, and C types.
Results

Hand pattern A (2D<4D) appears to be the most characteristic trait in Malays. The highest scoring hand pattern in Chinese is A as well with scores of 52% in their right hands and 60% in their left hands. In Indians, hand pattern C (2D>4D) shows dominance in their right hands with a score of 46% while hand pattern A dominates their left hands. Among the males, all three races show dominance in hand pattern A except in Chinese whereby the C hand pattern was dominant in their right hands (44%). Among the females, the most common trait in Malays and Chinese are the hand pattern A in both their hands. Indian females, however, showed dominance in hand pattern C in their right hands (60%), and hand pattern B (2D = 4D) dominated in their left hands (44%). Results of the statistical analysis revealed that there was a highly significant difference in the hand patterns of both the hands when compared to gender.
Conclusion

The study suggests that ratio below or equal to 0.90 is suggestive of female sex for both hands, while a ratio of more than 0.91 is suggestive of male sex for both hands. The pattern A (2D<4D) is seen to be the most common trait among the three ethnicities of Malaysia with an exception seen in the right hands of Indians.


__________________________________

Racial Variation in Treatment of Traumatic Finger/Thumb Amputation: A National Comparative Study of Replantation and Revision Amputation

2016

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5095678/


__________________________________

Why Does Cracking Your Knuckles Make So Much Noise? Science Finally Has an Answer

March 29, 2018

https://time.com/5220275/knuckles-crack-science-why-reason/


__________________________________



Risk factors and burden of osteoarthritis

June 2016

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1877065716000245


__________________________________

Are Asian hands more flexible than their Caucasian counterparts?

August 14, 2013

https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1758998313496400


Abstract

Introduction

Though there is a general perception that Asian hands have an increased range of movements in all their joints, there is very little written in the literature on this topic. Our unit caters to a multiethnic population and it has been our experience that the outcomes after hand surgery are generally better in Asian hands. This study was aimed at comparing the range of movements between two cohorts of volunteers: Asians and Caucasians.
Methods

Data were collected on their ethnicity, gender, age, handedness and any medical conditions. The Beighton score was measured for all subjects and range of movements was measured using a standard goniometer. Totally, 114 subjects were enrolled into the study, which included 53 men (46%).
Results

There were 59 Caucasians and 55 Asians. The range of movements of wrist and hand was greater in Asians and the difference was statistically significant (p < 0.05). Men in general had greater range of movement of the fingers whereas women had greater range of movement of the thumb. There was no difference between Asian men and women with regard to wrist movements. However, Caucasian women had greater wrists movements than Caucasian males. The average Beighton score was the highest in Asian women, followed by Asian men. Caucasian men and women had an average Beighton Score of 2.

Discussion

Normative data for different ethnic groups are important for hand therapy as they can guide rehabilitation protocols. Our study demonstrates that a difference in hand flexibility between British Asians and their Caucasian counterparts exists.


__________________________________



Determination of hand and palm surface areas as a percentage of body surface area in Turkish young adults


https://www.oatext.com/Determination-of-hand-and-palm-surface-areas-as-a-percentage-of-body-surface-area-in-Turkish-young-adults.php#gsc.tab=0


__________________________________


Racial Differences In Palm And Sole Configuration


https://anthrosource.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1525/aa.1904.6.2.02a00030


__________________________________

Biokinetic Study of the Wrist joint

May 2012

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/265531877_Biokinetic_Study_of_the_Wrist_joint


Abstract and Figures

Introduction: Quantification of joint mobility by ROM (range of movement), meaning the maximal range of joint angle, is used to evaluate the degenerative joint disorders and the efficacy of treatment. Age, gender, individual habits, daily activities and tissue degeneration influence the joint ROM. The wrist joint, with many supporting tissues to perform a motion, is a complex structure. Many studies mentioned ROM may be different in various racial groups because of their body built, underlying diseases. Objective: This study aims to establish a database of wrist joint ROM and factors influencing it among Myanmar population.


__________________________________

 

 Female waist-to-hip and male waist-to-shoulder ratios as determinants of romantic partner desirability

https://www.unm.edu/~abryan/articles/femalehipratio.pdf

 

__________________________________

Hereditary and racial variation in the musculus palmaris longus

April/June 1921

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ajpa.1330040207

 

__________________________________

Evaluation of Normal Ranges of Wrist Radiologic Indexes in Mashhad Population

November 2017

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/321110642_Evaluation_of_Normal_Ranges_of_Wrist_Radiologic_Indexes_in_Mashhad_Population

 

__________________________________

 
THE CLUSTERING PHENOMENON AND GROUP-SEQUENCE OF HAND-WRIST OSSIFICATION CENTERS, AS ILLUSTRATED BY CHINESE CHILDREN FROM HONG KONG

1968

https://www.jstor.org/stable/41448914?seq=1

__________________________________

Global point signature for shape analysis of carpal bones

2014

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3966902/

__________________________________

Ultrasound Measurement of the Median Nerve for Carpal Tunnel Syndrome of the Non-handicapped and the Handicapped

2004

https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/jpts/16/2/16_2_107/_pdf

__________________________________



Ultrasound Evaluation of the Normal Ulnar Nerve in Guyon's Tunnel: Cross-sectional Area and Anthropometric Measurements

Dec 2015

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0929644115000764

__________________________________



Tendon Disorders of the Hand and Wrist

2010

https://www.jhandsurg.org/article/S0363-5023(10)00263-7/fulltext

__________________________________

 

Polydactyly in Development, Inheritance, and Evolution


https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/full/10.1086/690841


Abstract

The occurrence of supernumerary digits or toes in humans and other tetrapods has attracted general interest since antiquity and later influenced scientific theories of development, inheritance, and evolution. Seventeenth-century genealogical studies of polydactyly were at the beginning of an understanding of the rules of inheritance. Features of polydactyly were also part of the classical disputes on the nature of development, including the preformation-versus-epigenesis and the atavism-versus-malformation debates. In the evolutionary domain, polydactyly was used in the criticism of the gradualist account of variation underlying Darwin’s theory. Today, extra digit formation plays a role in the conceptualization of gene regulation and pattern formation in vertebrate limb evolution. Recent genetic, experimental, and modeling accounts of extra digit formation highlight the existence of nongradual transitions in phenotypic states, suggesting a distinction between continuous and discontinuous variation in evolution. Unless otherwise noted, all translations are our own.


 __________________________________

Radial polydactyly: putting together evolution, development and clinical anatomy

October 30, 2018

https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/1753193418808138

Abstract

Evolutionary developmental pathology, a new biological field, connects the study of evolution, development and human pathologies. In radial polydactyly, traditional studies have focused mainly on skeletal anomalies. This study examines anatomical and operative records of 54 consecutive cases of radial polydactyly to investigate whether there is a consistent spatial correlation between muscles, tendons and bones and whether this reflects a link between the mechanisms that generate these structures. The data are explored in the context of two current models of limb development: the modularity and topology models. Autopod (hand) tendons and muscles are more predictable in terms of insertion site, supporting both topology and modularity models. Zeugopod (forearm) tendons are less predictable. Neither model universally predicts the anatomy in radial polydactyly. These observations provide evidence for the complexity of anatomy in radial polydactyly and the difficulty in predicting operative findings based on the level of skeletal duplication alone.


 __________________________________


How evolution has equipped our hands with five fingers

October 5, 2016

https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2016/10/161005132654.htm


 __________________________________

What If Our Hands Had 6 Fingers?

May 11, 2012

https://www.livescience.com/20241-hands-fingers.html


As incredible as our hands are — capable of everything from threading needles to splitting wooden boards — there's no telling whether they are just right, or merely good enough. Evolutionary biologists don't quite know why humans, and the vast majority of four-limbed earthlings, have five digits per limb. Would life be much better or worse if our hands had evolved with six fingers instead?

An extra digit next to our pinkies would make some tasks easier. We could strum more complex musical instruments, type faster and grip objects more firmly. "And a broader hand would make it easier to palm a basketball," said Cliff Tabin, a geneticist at Harvard Medical School who studies limb development in vertebrates. "But our fine motor manual dexterity is mostly thumb and index finger. An extra little finger more (or less) would not change much," Tabin told Life's Little Mysteries.

By far the biggest impact would be on math — and a different number system could have surprisingly profound consequences.


 __________________________________

Clinical Genetics of Polydactyly: An Updated Review

2018

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6232527/

Abstract

Polydactyly, also known as hyperdactyly or hexadactyly is the most common hereditary limb anomaly characterized by extra fingers or toes, with various associated morphologic phenotypes as part of a syndrome (syndromic polydactyly) or may occur as a separate event (non-syndromic polydactyly). Broadly, the non-syndromic polydactyly has been classified into three types, i.e.; preaxial polydactyly (radial), central polydactyly (axial), and postaxial polydactyly (ulnar). Mostly inherited as an autosomal dominant entity with variable penetrance and caused by defects that occur in the anterior-posterior patterning of limb development. In humans, to-date at least 10 loci and six genes causing non-syndromic polydactyly have been identified, including the ZNF141, GLI3, MIPOL1, IQCE, PITX1, and the GLI1. In the present review, clinical, genetic and molecular characterization of the polydactyly types has been presented including the recent genes and loci identified for non-syndromic polydactyly. This review provides an overview of the complex genetic mechanism underlie polydactyly and might help in genetic counseling and quick molecular diagnosis.

 

Introduction

 

The term polydactyly, “poly means many and dactylos means digits” is acknowledged to the 17th century Kerchring (1988). Polydactyly or polydactylism refers to the occurrence of supernumerary digits, toes or any complex duplication of digital parts. This situation was described as “superfluous fingers” in the 16th century by Ambrose Parey (Bell, 1953). It is among the most common congenital limb anomaly observed immediately at birth, manifesting in a variety of forms, ranging from complete or incomplete duplication of digits. Its occurrence is estimated 1.6–10.7/1000 in general population, 0.3–3.6/1000 in live births and males are often affected twice as females (Mellin, 1963; Castilla et al., 1973). Phenotypically, polydactyly is an extremely heterogeneous deformity (Temtamy and McKusick, 1978), with high tendency for the involvement of right hand than the left, upper limbs are more affected than the lower and left foot more affected than the right (Castilla et al., 1973; Malik et al., 2014). Polydactyly occurs in both syndromic and non-syndromic forms. The two most common types of polydactyly are postaxial polydactyly (PAP) categorized by an extra digit at the fifth finger or toe and preaxial polydactyly (PPD), having a digit (superfluous) attached on the greater toe or thumb side (Winter and Tickle, 1993; Lange and Müller, 2017). While, the mesoaxial polydactyly is a very rare form of digit deformity involvingduplication of second, third, or fourth digits. The present review extends the classification presented by Malik (2014). Total 435 and 3267 entries were obtained using the mesh “polydactyly” in the OMIM and PubMed [NCBI]. They include both syndromic and non-syndromic postaxial, preaxial, and complex polydactylies. Non-syndromic polydactyly types have been presented in Supplementary Table S1, while syndromic polydactyly entries from OMIM have been summarized in Supplementary Table S2, which might be helpful for clinicians and researchers in proper diagnosis, surgery, and treatment of polydactyly cases.

 

 Polydactyly Classification

 
The polydactyly classification systems and basis of classification has been summarized in the Supplementary Table S3. Temtamy and McKusick (1978) scheme is the most widely used classification among different genetic counselors, radiologists, and clinicians. In this system, polydactyly has been classified into three types, i.e., PPD, PAP, and complex types).

 

 

 

Cartoon diagrams of autopods showing preaxial, postaxial, and complex polydactylies. Red filled elements portray the affected/polydactylous digits. Yellow filled elements portray dysplastic/hypoplastic bones and shaded digits represent syndactyly. (A) Representing PPD1 including (I) bifid thumb, hallucal polydactyly and (II) duplication of thumb and hallux. (B) Representing PPD2 including (I) opposable triphalangeal thumb and (II) non-opposable triphalangeal thumb. (C) Representing PPD3 including (I,II) duplication of the second digit. (D) Representing PPD4 including (I) toe webbing (Cross-type I) and (II) finger/toe webbing (Cross type II). (E) Representing PAPA, having (I) well developed fifth digit and (II) more proximal branching of the (5^th) fifth digit. (F) Representing PAPB, (I) Pedunculated postminimus and (II) bifid fifth toe-pedunculated postminimus. (G) Representing complex polydactylies (I) showing mirror image preaxial duplications. (II) Central polydactyly (mesoaxial) in hand and foot. (III) Haas type polydactyly with complete syndactyly. (IV) Palmer/dorsal polydactyly.

 __________________________________

This leap day, we explain how six-fingered humans use their extra digit to gain the upper hand

Feb 29, 2020

https://nationalpost.com/life/leap-day-how-six-fingered-humans-use-their-extra-digit

 __________________________________

Breakthrough Investigation Of People With A Sixth Finger Has Implications For Infant Medicine And Cyborgs

June 12, 2019

 

Picture in your mind a futuristic, technologically enhanced human. Perhaps you imagined them with a subcutaneous device in their arm for phone calls and browsing the internet. Maybe they are wearing smart glasses for augmented reality. What I’d wager you didn’t think of is the presence of an artificial sixth digit attached to each hand. However, a breakthrough open-access study in Nature Communications – the first to study the physiology and sensorimotor mechanics of polydactyly volunteers (people born with extra fingers) – shows the feasibility and practical advantages that would be gained from such an extra appendage. The results also have implications for the medical treatment of polydactyl people, who often have their extra finger removed at birth on the presumption that it will be of no benefit to them.

Carsten Mehring and his colleagues conducted various tests with two polydactyly volunteers, a 17-year-old boy and his mother, both born with an extra fully formed finger between their thumb and index finger (known as preaxial polydactyly). The researchers note that polydactyly is “not rare”, with an incidence of around 0.2 per cent in the population. However, fully formed preaxial polydactyly is a rarer subset of that group.

Using MRI of the volunteers’ hands, the researchers established that the extra finger has a saddle joint, similar to a typical thumb, and that it is innervated by its own dedicated nerves. Further tests established that the volunteers had independent control of their extra finger and that they were able to use it to perform a pinch grip with each of their other fingers.

An MRI of the volunteers’ brains further showed that the extra finger was represented in the brain independently of the other fingers. Another test, that involved concealing the extra finger and asking the volunteers’ to identify landmarks on it, showed that they had an accurate mental representation of their extra digit.

Next, the researchers used video motion capture to observe the volunteers manipulating various objects. This showed that the volunteers engaged in a “rich ensemble of movement patterns” and that they frequently used their extra finger in coordination with both their thumb and index finger (it was not simply used as a substitute for these digits). “Taken together these results demonstrate that the movements of the six fingers of our two subjects had increased complexity relative to common five-fingered hands,” the researchers said.

But do these extra movement capabilities provide any functional advantage? Mehring and his team devised a video game that required coordinating key presses to respond to six boxes oscillating progressively faster up and down onscreen. A different key press was required to respond to each of the six boxes, so people with normal five-fingered hands would need two hands to succeed at the task, the researchers note. Critically, the polydactyl volunteers were able to achieve the same impressive game performance with one hand as with two.

Neuroscience and psychology have studied extensively the profound neural consequences for humans of losing a limb or other appendage, including documenting the pain caused by the phantom limb effect (usually explained as due to reorganisation of the brain’s representation of missing part). However, this new study represents the first neuroscientific exploration of having an extra body part, finding “… that the human nervous system is able to develop, embody and control multiple extra degrees of freedom and integrate them into coordinated movements with the other limbs, without any apparent deficits or conflicts in the sensorimotor or mental representations.”

This has immediate implications for the medical response to polydactyl, suggesting the need to “…thoroughly evaluate the functionality of [the extra digit] in polydactyl infants before deciding whether to remove it.” Also, from a cyborg perspective, the results “…suggest that it may be of value to augment normal five-fingered hands with an artificial supernumerary finger,” the researchers said. In fact this new research paves the wave for an entire new research endeavor. “Polydactyl individuals with functional [extra fingers] offer a unique opportunity to investigate the neural control of supernumerary limbs, analyse internal representations of body and the limits of sensorimotor capabilities in humans.”

https://digest.bps.org.uk/2019/06/12/breakthrough-investigation-of-people-with-a-sixth-finger-has-implications-for-infant-medicine-and-cyborgs/

 __________________________________

Humans have more primitive hands than chimpanzees

Jul 14, 2015

https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2015/07/humans-have-more-primitive-hands-chimpanzees


The human hand is a marvel of dexterity. It can thread a needle, coax intricate melodies from the keys of a piano, and create lasting works of art with a pen or a paintbrush. Many scientists have assumed that our hands evolved their distinctive proportions over millions of years of recent evolution. But a new study suggests a radically different conclusion: Some aspects of the human hand are actually anatomically primitive—more so even than that of many other apes, including our evolutionary cousin the chimpanzee. The findings have important implications for the origins of human toolmaking, as well as for what the ancestor of both humans and chimps might have looked like.

 

 __________________________________

Brain Science Is Ignoring Left-Handed People

July 9, 2020

"It’s one of these 'rules of thumb' that people learn when they start doing neuroscience, that including left-handed individuals is bad.”

https://www.vice.com/en/article/y3zbyj/brain-science-is-ignoring-left-handed-people



__________________________________

Science in your hands: What your fingerprints say about you

June 06, 2017

https://www.bbvaopenmind.com/en/science/research/science-in-your-hands-what-your-fingerprints-say-about-you/

You have something in common with koalas

Many species of primates (gorillas and chimpanzees) and other mammals such as koalas have developed their own fingerprints, which are very similar to those of humans. In addition, zebras and tigers have the equivalent of fingerprints on their fur markings, since the patterns that form lines and spots are also unique for each individual.

 

The case of koalas is especially striking, because as you can see in the picture, the prints are surprisingly similar to those of humans, even more than those of our “evolutionary cousins”: primates. The presence of these markings on the skin of koalas, a marsupial climber, could be explained by its interaction with the bark of trees, given its climbing nature, although there are still major uncertainties regarding function, evolutionary origin and the reason for differences between individuals.


__________________________________




Talking With One’s Hands: It’s not rude. It’s a Jewish And Italian Thing! | #Culture on Blog#42

February 11, 2016

https://www.rimaregas.com/2016/02/11/talking-with-ones-hands-its-not-rude-its-a-jewish-and-italian-thing-culture-on-blog42/


__________________________________



Racial and Gender Differences in Arterial Anatomy of the Arm

October 1, 2016

https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/000313481608201025?journalCode=asua


Abstract

Prior studies have shown racial and gender differences with respect to maturation of arteriovenous fistulas. Women and minorities have lower maturation rates for unclear reasons. Small arterial diameter and high brachial artery bifurcation (HBB) are also implicated in reduced maturation rates. We sought to correlate differences in upper extremity arterial anatomy to race and gender. All upper extremity vascular mapping ultrasounds from 2013 to 2014 were retrospectively reviewed. A total of 509 arms in 284 patients were evaluated. Men had significantly higher mean arterial diameters than women at the elbow brachial (4.7 vs 3.9 mm, P < 0.01) and wrist radial arteries (2.1 vs 1.9 mm, P = 0.03). There were 20 (7%) patients with HBB of at least one arm, and 7 (2.5%) patients with bilateral HBB. African-American patients had significantly higher rates of both unilateral HBB (15.9% vs 5.4%, P = 0.02) and bilateral HBBs (9.1% vs 1.3%, P = 0.01). In conclusion, men had significantly larger arteries than women, and African-Americans had a higher rate of HBB than non-African-Americans. Consideration should be given for routine preoperative ultrasound to assess arterial anatomy before arteriovenous fistulas creation, particularly in women and in African-Americans.

__________________________________

Racial Differences in Maximal Vasodilatory Capacity of Forearm Resistance Vessels in Normotensive Young Adults

November 01, 1992

https://academic.oup.com/ajh/article-abstract/5/11/781/162786?redirectedFrom=fulltext

Abstract

This study was performed to determine whether alterations in vascular structure exist in a biracial population of young (age 22.3 ± 0.6 yrs [mean + SE]) normotensive men. We examined maximal vasodilatory capacity in 21 blacks and 20 whites (average blood pressure = 122/75 and 118/72 mm Hg, respectively). Forearm blood flow was determined at rest and after 10 min of ischemic handgrip exercise using venous occlusion plethysmography. Forearm vascular resistance was computed from blood flow and mean arterial blood pressure determined by auscultation. Minimum forearm vascular resistance was 23% higher in blacks (2.60 ± 0.60) than in whites (2.11 ± 0.41) (P = .005), and was unrelated to parental history of hypertension. The regression equation for minimum forearm vascular resistance (Y) and casual blood pressure (X) for blacks was Y = – 1. 782 + 0.0487X (r = 0.522); for whites it was Y = – 1.165 + 0.0367X (r = 0.418). When the data were covaried on resting mean arterial blood pressure, blacks still had a higher minimum forearm vascular resistance (P = .014). The results suggest a racial difference in the vascular structure of the forearm resistance vessels.

__________________________________

 

Racial Differences in Nitric Oxide–Mediated Vasodilator Response to Mental Stress in the Forearm Circulation

June 1, 1998


https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/10.1161/01.HYP.31.6.1235


Abstract


An abnormal hemodynamic response to stressful stimuli has been proposed as a mechanism involved in the higher prevalence of hypertension in blacks. Given the important role of nitric oxide (NO) in the regulation of cardiovascular homeostasis, we investigated the possibility of racial differences in vascular NO activity during mental stress. To test this hypothesis, we compared the forearm blood flow (FBF) response to mental stress in 14 white and 12 black healthy subjects during intra-arterial infusion of either saline or NO synthesis inhibitor N^G-monomethyl-l-arginine (L-NMMA; 4 μmol/min). We also examined vascular responses of the two groups to intra-arterial infusion of sodium nitroprusside (0.8 to 3.2 μg/min), an exogenous NO donor. During saline infusion, the increase in FBF from baseline induced by mental stress was significantly higher in whites than in blacks (109±20% versus 58±8%; P=0.03). L-NMMA significantly reduced stress-induced increase in FBF in whites (from 109±20% to 54±11%; P=0.004) but not in blacks (from 58±8% to 42±10%; P=0.24); thus, the vasodilator effect of stress testing during L-NMMA was similar in whites and blacks (54±11% versus 42±10%; P=0.44). The vasodilator response to sodium nitroprusside was also lower in blacks than in whites (maximum flow, 6.9±2 versus 11.6±3.5 mL · min⁻¹ · dL⁻¹; P=0.001) and was not significantly modified by L-NMMA in either group. Our findings indicate that blacks have a reduced NO-dependent vasodilator activity during mental stress. This difference seems related to reduced sensitivity of smooth muscle to the vasodilator effect of NO and may play some role in the increased prevalence of hypertension and its complications in blacks.



__________________________________

 

 
Race and stature differences in the skeletal maturation of the hand and wrist

Received 09 Mar 1973

https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/03014467400000211


Summary

Levels of maturity of 22 bones of the hand and wrist in children aged 5 to 10 years were compared by considering the differences between each bone-specific assessment (Greulich and Pyle, 1959) and the mean of all 22 bones. After elimination of the effects due to observer bias, atlas singularities, and age, comparisons were made by race (white, black, and Oriental) and stature. In all comparisons, distinct row or area effects were found, with some evidence of ray gradients also. The pattern differences between white and black children were more pronounced than those between whites and Orientals, or those among the stature groups of whites and blacks. The white-black differences were great enough to provide the basis for an effective discriminant function. The total variation in maturity within the hand (the “disharmony” or “imbalance”) differs in blacks from such variation in the other races.

 

__________________________________

 
Racial and Gender Differences in Arterial Anatomy of the Arm

2016

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/317772075_Racial_and_Gender_Differences_in_Arterial_Anatomy_of_the_Arm

 

__________________________________

Racial differences in blood pressure and forearm vascular responses to the cold face stimulus.

Dec 31, 1987

https://europepmc.org/article/med/3344303

 Abstract

The mechanisms responsible for the higher incidence of essential hypertension in blacks than in whites are the object of much research attention. One hypothesis is that the development of hypertension in blacks is associated with exaggerated blood pressure reactivity, particularly those responses mediated by vasoconstriction. Racial differences in blood pressure responses to cold stimulation of the forehead, a known alpha-adrenergic vasoconstrictive stimulus, were examined in health, college-age males. Compared to white subjects, black subjects exhibited significantly greater increases in systolic and diastolic blood pressure, as well as increases in forearm vascular resistance, in response to cold stimulation. This preliminary evidence of increased peripheral vascular reactivity in blacks suggests that known racial differences in hypertension prevalence might derive in part from physiological differences in sympathetic nervous system reactivity.


__________________________________

The Mystery of the Magical Forearm Lines

2011

http://themissingink23.blogspot.com/2011/06/maybe-you-can-help-me.html

_____________________________________

_____________________________________

__________________________________

__________________________________

__________________________________


Section 22: Genetics, Race & Science

__________________________________

__________________________________

__________________________________

_____________________________________

_____________________________________

What’s Race Got to Do With It?

June 15, 2009

While each patient is an individual, racial differences exist for certain ocular conditions. Knowing these affects diagnosis and treatment.

https://www.reviewofoptometry.com/article/whats-race-got-to-do-with-it


__________________________________

Race, Evolution and Behavior

By J. Philippe Rushton

Copyright © 1995

https://lesacreduprintemps19.files.wordpress.com/2012/11/jp-rushton-race-evolution-behavior-unabridged-1997-edition.pdf


__________________________________


On the Geographical Distribution of the Chief Modifications of Mankind

Journal of the Ethnological Society of London (1870)

https://mathcs.clarku.edu/huxley/SM3/GeoDis.html


__________________________________

“Race” and the reality of human physical variation

https://www.britannica.com/topic/race-human/Modern-scientific-explanations-of-human-biological-variation


__________________________________


The Anatomy of Difference: Race and Sex in Eighteenth-Century Science

1990

https://www.jstor.org/stable/2739176?seq=1


__________________________________




Physical Traits of the Six European Races Found in Germany

http://container.zkm.de/lfh/pdf/B006DT07E.PDF



In: Dieter Gerhart, Kurzer Abriß der Rassenkunde [Short Compendium of Ethnology], fourth revised ed. (J.F. Lehmann Verlag) Munich 1931, p. 4 (from Hans F.K. Günther, Study of Race in Europe, Munich 1929,3. annotated and improved edition, and Racial Study of the German People, Munich 1929, 13.ed.) This chart is not to be found in Günther, so this list must have been based on Günther, but was put together byDieter Gerhart himself. Result of the research done by the House of the Wannsee-Conference Memorial and by the Center for the Research of Antisemitism.


__________________________________

 

 The Origin and Genetic Background of the Sámi

https://www.laits.utexas.edu/sami/dieda/hist/genetic.htm


The genetic origin of the Sámi people is complex and difficult to trace.  Their beginnings are closely linked with the origin of the Finns...

 

__________________________________

 

Dinaric race

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinaric_race

The Dinaric race, also known as the Adriatic race, were terms used by certain physical anthropologists in the early to mid-20th century to describe the perceived predominant phenotype of the contemporary ethnic groups of southeast Europe (a sub-type of Caucasoid race).

History and physiognomy

The concept of a Dinaric race originated with Joseph Deniker in the late 19th century, but became most closely associated with the writings of Carleton S. Coon and Nazi eugenicist Hans F. K. Günther. The term was derived from the Dinaric Alps (the western part of Southeastern Europe) which was supposed to be the principal habitat of the race.

According to Jan Czekanowski, the Dinaric race is a mixed type consisting of the Nordic race and Mediterranean race, which he proves by anthropological research involving geographical data, cephalic index, and characteristic racial features. He states:

    The Dinaric type is characterized by quite light skin, dark hair from dark brown to dark blonde, and a wide range of eye color; tall stature, a brachycephalic skull, long face, a very narrow and prominent nose, sometimes aquiline; a slender body type, and very big feet.

Characteristics were defined as very tall, mostly mesomorph bodily build, with relatively long legs and short trunk and a long arm span. The overall anatomy of the head was said to be brachycephalic to hyperbrachycephalic (Cranial index: 81–86), i.e. a combination of high breadth of head and medium length of the neurocranium, whose back part is often somewhat flattened (planoccipital)...



__________________________________



The evolution and disparity of the Eastern Asian phenotype

March 10, 2018

https://foothilldragonpress.org/262517/science/evolution/


In our lifetime, we’ve met thousands of individuals and have peered at even more faces. Whether referring to brow bridges or cheekbones, each and every face has its own distinctive structure. This prompts us to question how these differences in facial features came to be. Examining the factors responsible for change, especially using different races as points of comparison, helps us piece together the puzzle of why and how.

The disparity between the Mongoloid and the Caucasian are quite evident. The most prominent Mongoloid facial features— the flat face and slit eyes— evolved to accommodate cold temperatures. Eastern Siberia, was originally inhabited by the Tungus, a Mongoloid race. In temperatures as low as the recorded minus 96 degrees Fahrenheit, a facial structure lacking protuberances minimizes the surface area exposed to the cold. This flattening can be seen in reduced browbridges and the nasal skeleton that is the same altitude as the eye’s cornea. A widened face allows some compensation for the size of the nasal resonance chamber needed for speech, but this cavity needs to be more deeply set in order to heat inhaled air. Thus, to create this required depth, the malars, or cheekbones, are enlarged and extended forward.

Perhaps most striking of the Mongoloid characteristics are the eyes. The monolid, or epicanthic fold, is an adaptation to snow glare and snow blindness: the slit allows minimal reception to bright light. Where this slit occurs naturally on the Mongoloid, its effective design was emulated in man-made goggles created by the Arctic Eskimo, showing the engineer-like role of natural selection. Moreover, this monolid allows further protection from low temperatures. It is the fatty layer molded above and under the eye that creates the slit. Fat, a poor conductor of heat and thus an effective insulator, is distributed throughout the face. This facial fat is so crucial that the eye orbitals are extended vertically to provide additional space for fat.

Recent studies have uncovered new genetic evidence to explain other Asian phenotypes beyond the eyes and facial structure.

The EDARV370A (370A) allele, or a variant of the Ectodysplasin receptor, has been traced as the cause of Eastern Asian thickness of hair, an increase of eccrine glands (more sweat) and a decrease in mammary glands (small breasts).

But in further discussion of the potential selective forces causing 370A, the temperature again is a strong candidate— but in this case, the warm temperatures that followed the cold. A large number of eccrine glands supports efficient evapotranspiration, which due to water’s high heat of vaporization, shows a strong homeostatic effect in relieving body heat. As geographical records indicate a warm and humid Central Asia between 40,000 and 32,000years ago, excessive sweating is a selective advantage. Although this heated climate seems to imply there would no longer be a need for slit eyes and flat faces (and while it is true that eyes have become less epicanthic in some areas), the flat facial structures continue due to a lack of a more advantageous gene to replace it.

In contrasting the defined, thin Caucasian face structure with its flattened, insulated Mongoloid counterpart, the effects of adaptation and natural selection are unmistakable.

But it is the nuances between Asia itself, and more specifically, between the Korean, Japanese, Chinese, that are often mistaken as a singular entity.

“The only thing that all these [Asian] people have in common is the habit of eating rice,” states Carleton Coon, author of Races; a study of the problems of race formation in man. In fact, because rice was commonly used to ferment and preserve foods, and alcohol can lead to bodily damages, genes involved in the ethanol metabolic pathway became a target of selection. As the ethanol is metabolized, by product accumulates in the body, creating the flushed cheeks. For it is the ADH1B*47His allele, passed on 10,000 years ago and now nearly universal to East Asians, that causes the modern Asian to flush red after alcohol consumption.

Archaeological evidence supports that the Koreans were a Tungusic race that migrated from Central Asia to what is now the Korean peninsula in the third millennium BC. The Paleo Asians who were driven out of the peninsula by the Koreans are thought to be ancestors to the Ainu, an important ethnic group in Japan. This supports a study researching the allelic frequency of blood markers that found that Koreans are genetically nearest to Mongolians (Central Asia) and are related to the Japanese (Ainu). This is compatible with linguistic evidence that shows the Korean, Mongolian, Tungusic and Japanese language all share a common origin.

Despite the geographical proximity, there is not a demonstrably close genetic relation between the Korean and Han Chinese. This is supported by the fact that the Korean minority living in China for centuries haven’t received much genetic contribution from the Han Chinese.

The Korean population is said to lack most of a sizable ethnic minority compared to Japan and China. Perhaps due to nationalistic pride, Koreans have maintained their cultural and linguistic identity throughout historical migrations. Contrastingly, modern China, with over 3.7 million square miles, is comprised of 92 percent Han- Chinese and another 56 prominent minorities, including the Uyghurs, Tibetans and Hui.

The modern Japanese genotype is a result of an admixture of the Jomon and Yayoi farmers. Characterized with more wide-set eyes and a more pronounced facial topography, the Jomon were the primary inhabitants of Japan until circa 300 BC. As Japan transitioned from being hunter-gatherers to farmers, the period raised the carrying capacity that increased the population and promoted more movement and a dilution of the gene pool.

“The peoples of eastern Asian are quite diverse, and the national boundaries [between ] China, Korea and Japan are relatively recent political compositions that contain a range of different ethnic and cultural groups,” notes Agustin Fuentes, an anthropology professor at the University of Notre Dame.

Even within these nations, the “Japanese, Korean and Chinese are not biological units or even homogeneous populations.”

The differences between the Caucasian and Mongoloid are prominent, but it is the differences within the Mongoloid that lacks recognition. Whether it is their complex social history or evolutionary genetics, the Chinese, Japanese and Korean are significantly different.


__________________________________

Automatic racial stereotyping appears based on facial features in addition to race

2005

https://www.apa.org/monitor/jan05/stereotyping



__________________________________




A STUDY OF SOME MORPHOGENETIC TRAITS AMONG THE ESAN ETHNIC GROUP OF NIGERIA

2014

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26866091/

 

__________________________________

Hidden in Plain Sight — Reconsidering the Use of Race Correction in Clinical Algorithms

August 27, 2020

https://www.revistanefrologia.com/en-hypertension-in-african-american-population-articulo-S201325141500005X


Physicians still lack consensus on the meaning of race. When the Journal took up the topic in 2003 with a debate about the role of race in medicine, one side argued that racial and ethnic categories reflected underlying population genetics and could be clinically useful.1 Others held that any small benefit was outweighed by potential harms that arose from the long, rotten history of racism in medicine.2 Weighing the two sides, the accompanying Perspective article concluded that though the concept of race was “fraught with sensitivities and fueled by past abuses and the potential for future abuses,” race-based medicine still had potential: “it seems unwise to abandon the practice of recording race when we have barely begun to understand the architecture of the human genome.”

The next year, a randomized trial showed that a combination of hydralazine and isosorbide dinitrate reduced mortality due to heart failure among patients who identified themselves as black. The Food and Drug Administration granted a race-specific indication for that product, BiDil, in 2005. Even though BiDil’s ultimate commercial failure cast doubt on race-based medicine, it did not lay the approach to rest. Prominent geneticists have repeatedly called on physicians to take race seriously, while distinguished social scientists vehemently contest these calls.



__________________________________

Negative Racial Stereotypes and Their Effect on Attitudes Toward African-Americans


https://www.ferris.edu/HTMLS/news/jimcrow/links/essays/vcu.htm


__________________________________


Physical Characters of the American Negro

1944

https://www.jstor.org/stable/18505


__________________________________



Ethnicity and Covid-19: Standing on the shoulders of eugenics?

Dr Catherine Dodds & Dr Saffron Karlsen, University of Bristol

The current pandemic does not affect all ethnic groups equally.1 Recent evidence indicates that Bangladeshi people are twice, Pakistani people three times and Black African people almost four times more likely to die of Covid-19 than white British people, with a higher rate of death also among Indian, Black Caribbean and ‘other white’ ethnic groups.

https://osf.io/preprints/socarxiv/5gbrz/

__________________________________

Comparison of the Incidence, Clinical Characteristics, and Outcomes in Otitis Media among US African American and Australian Aboriginal Populations

2017

https://juniperpublishers.com/gjo/pdf/GJO.MS.ID.555684.pdf


Abstract

Otitis media (OM) is the most commonly diagnosed illness in toddlers. Compared to non-indigenous Australian populations, indigenous Australian children are less likely to receive specialty care or surgery for OM. Similarly, compared to non-African American children, African Americans are less frequently diagnosed with OM and face serious complications because of these disparities. In order to compare and contrast the reasons for the healthcare inequities in both populations, a qualitative narrative review of literature was conducted using the keywords “Aboriginal”, “Indigenous Australian”, “African American”, “Otitis Media”, “Disparity”, and “Access.”  Significant differences were found between the national healthcare systems and types of programs designed to combat these disparities. However, many parallels were discovered between the social factors in both groups leading to the gap in healthcare. This paper seeks to offer a comprehensive of these factors and how they contribute to inequity in care.

__________________________________

 

_____________________________________

_____________________________________

__________________________________

__________________________________

__________________________________


Section 23: The White Race

__________________________________

__________________________________

__________________________________

_____________________________________

_____________________________________

 

 

Blood of the Irish: What DNA Tells Us About the Ancestry of People in Ireland

Aug 19, 2018

https://owlcation.com/stem/Irish-Blood-Genetic-Identity?li_source=LI&li_medium=m2m-rcw-owlcation---education

 

__________________________________

THE SEARCH FOR “ARYAN BLOOD: ”SEROANTHROPOLOGY IN WEIMAR AND NATIONAL SOCIALIST GERMANY

August 2009

https://etd.ohiolink.edu/!etd.send_file?accession=kent1247676999&disposition=attachment

 

__________________________________

 

 Ancient History of Ireland, Tuatha Dé Danann, Scythians, and Phoenicians - ROBERT SEPEHR

Mar 8, 2019

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BuN5rf0CoI8

 

__________________________________


Foreign Bodies

Oceania and the Science  of Race 1750-1940

This edition © 2008

https://press-files.anu.edu.au/downloads/press/p53561/pdf/book.pdf

__________________________________


Not Everyone Who Looks White is White

October 13, 2018

https://armenianweekly.com/2018/10/13/not-everyone-who-looks-white-is-white/


__________________________________

 

 Caucasian race

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caucasian_race


The Caucasian race (also Caucasoid or Europid) is an outdated grouping of human beings historically regarded as a biological taxon, which, depending on which of the historical race classifications is used, has usually included ancient and modern populations from all or parts of Europe, Western Asia, Central Asia, South Asia, North Africa, and the Horn of Africa.

First introduced in the 1780s by members of the Göttingen School of History, the term denoted one of three purported major races of humankind (Caucasoid, Mongoloid, Negroid). In biological anthropology, Caucasoid has been used as an umbrella term for phenotypically similar groups from these different regions, with a focus on skeletal anatomy, and especially cranial morphology, without regard to skin tone. Ancient and modern "Caucasoid" populations were thus not exclusively "white," but ranged in complexion from white-skinned to dark brown.

Since the second half of the 20th century, physical anthropologists have moved away from a typological understanding of human biological diversity towards a genomic and population-based perspective, and have tended to understand race as a social classification of humans based on phenotype and ancestry as well as cultural factors, as the concept is also understood in the social sciences. In the United States, the root term Caucasian has also often been used as a synonym for white or of European, Middle Eastern, or North African ancestry. Its usage in American English has been criticized.

 

__________________________________

Thread: The genetic prehistory of the Greater Caucasus [preprint Harvard/Jena]

https://anthrogenica.com/showthread.php?14285-The-genetic-prehistory-of-the-Greater-Caucasus-preprint-Harvard-Jena/page2

__________________________________

 

 
The Origins of Ashkenaz, Ashkenazic Jews, and Yiddish

2017

https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fgene.2017.00087/full

 

__________________________________

What causes the crease on the forearm above the elbow typical of Han Chinese?

https://www.quora.com/What-causes-the-crease-on-the-forearm-above-the-elbow-typical-of-Han-Chinese


__________________________________


An Anthropometric Study on the Carrying Angle of Elbow among Young Adults of Various Ethinicities in Malaysia

January 2014

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/269694459_An_Anthropometric_Study_on_the_Carrying_Angle_of_Elbow_among_Young_Adults_of_Various_Ethinicities_in_Malaysia


__________________________________

Researchers identify the sex of skeletons based on elbow features

October 23, 2019

https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2019/10/191023132257.htm

In an effort to help identify skeletal remains of Thai descent, researchers from Boston University School of Medicine (BUSM) have found that examining the distal humerus (elbow) bone is superior to previous techniques that were developed for identifying sex in a non-Asian population...

__________________________________

Evaluation of the Elbow Carrying Angle in Healthy Individuals

2018

https://scielo.conicyt.cl/pdf/ijmorphol/v36n1/0717-9502-ijmorphol-36-01-00135.pdf


__________________________________


Are there racial disparities in utilization and outcomes after total elbow arthroplasty?

2015

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25812536/


__________________________________


The carrying angle: racial differences and relevance to inter-epicondylar distance of the humerus

2016

https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/b5a5/d05f8a02cf69922bf16522f69c3d271ab86a.pdf


__________________________________

 

A Sonographic Technique to Evaluate the Anterior Bundle of the Ulnar Collateral Ligament of the Elbow

2015

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.7863/ultra.34.3.377

 

__________________________________

Prevention of Ulnar Collateral Ligament (UCL) Injuries in Minor League Pitchers

2014

https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT02749760


 __________________________________

Electrophysiological study of the ulnar palmar cutaneous nerve in normal individuals

2016

http://www.err.eg.net/article.asp?issn=1110-161X;year=2016;volume=43;issue=4;spage=184;epage=189;aulast=Aziz

 

__________________________________

Ultrasound Evaluation of the Normal Ulnar Nerve in Guyon's Tunnel:  Cross-Sectional Area and Anthropometric Measurements

https://scholarworks.bridgeport.edu/xmlui/bitstream/handle/123456789/1483/18-guyon%20tunnel%20us%20Jinpu%20li.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y


__________________________________

Understanding Skier’s Thumb

https://www.fairview.org/patient-education/90639

Skier’s thumb is an injury to the ulnar collateral ligament. This ligament is at the base of the thumb on the side near the pointer (index) finger. It helps keep the thumb stable when grasping or pinching objects. With skier’s thumb, the ligament is stretched or torn (sprained). This can cause pain. It can also limit movement and use of the thumb. Depending on how severe the injury is, it may take a few weeks or longer for the thumb to heal. This injury is also sometimes called gamekeeper's thumb.
Causes of skier’s thumb

Skier’s thumb is most often caused by a fall on an outstretched hand. Skiers tend to get this injury, which is how the condition gets its name. But the injury can also occur as the result of any activity or accident that forces your thumb into an extreme position...

__________________________________


Professor Lori Michener and her team strive to reduce elbow injuries in baseball

February 12, 2019

https://pt.usc.edu/2019/02/12/usc-professor-lori-michener-strives-to-reduce-ucl-injuries-in-baseball/


__________________________________

How to Treat Ulnar Collateral Ligament Injuries in Athletes
Medial Elbow Injuries in Throwing Athletes

https://www.verywellhealth.com/ulnar-collateral-ligament-injuries-in-athletes-2549351

 

__________________________________

As Game Changes, Science Can Lengthen a Pitcher’s Career

2013

https://www.nytimes.com/2013/08/28/sports/baseball/as-calculus-of-pitching-changes-knowledge-can-affect-longevity.html


__________________________________



Elbow injuries in the pediatric athlete

2018

http://aoj.amegroups.com/article/view/4189/4779

__________________________________

Throwing fastballs may be linked to Tommy John surgery in MLB pitchers

May 18, 2016

https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2016/05/160518120413.htm


Summary:

    Contrary to conventional wisdom, Major League Baseball pitchers who throw a high percentage of fastballs may be at increased risk for Tommy John surgery, according to research. Researchers suggest that throwing fastballs nearly half of the time puts pitchers at risk of injury to their elbow. MLB pitchers who have undergone Tommy John surgery threw on average 7 percent more fastballs than pitchers who had no surgery. 

__________________________________

The 10 most powerful pitchers in baseball history

2013

https://www.si.com/mlb/2013/03/08/power-week-baseball-pitchers


__________________________________

 

The Fastest Pitch Ever is Quicker Than the Blink of an Eye

    July 21, 2020

https://fanbuzz.com/mlb/fastest-pitch-ever/



The documentary Fastball dove into the intricacies of throwing some high, stinky cheese. Among the film’s research was a fact-finding mission for the fastest heater ever recorded. According to the film, the fastest pitch ever actually belongs to long-time MLB ace Nolan Ryan, who once hurled his wicked four-seamer 108.5 miles per hour.

The Game Haus cited that Ryan’s record fastball on August 20, 1974, was actually logged at 100.9. (Even wilder is that it came in the ninth inning of an 11-inning complete game loss.) However, the infrared radar used that day clocked his fastball at a different point in its flight compared to today’s technology, so the adjusted speed on Ryan’s fastball was actually 108.5 miles per hour.


__________________________________

 

An Analysis of Nearly 4 Million Pitches Shows Just How Many Mistakes Umpires Make

Botched calls and high error rates are rampant. Between 2008 and 2018, MLB home plate umpires made incorrect calls over 12 percent of the time...

https://getpocket.com/explore/item/an-analysis-of-nearly-4-million-pitches-shows-just-how-many-mistakes-umpires-make?utm_source=pocket-newtab

 

__________________________________


    
The association between race/ethnicity and outcomes following primary shoulder arthroplasty

May 01, 2020

https://www.jshoulderelbow.org/article/S1058-2746(19)30645-7/abstract


__________________________________

 

Racial and sex disparities in utilization rates for shoulder arthroplasty in the United States disparities in shoulder arthroplasty*

2019

https://www.tigerortho.com/pdfs/research/racial-sex-disparities-utilization-rates-shoulder-arthroplasty.pdf



__________________________________

Shoulder Arthroplasty Utilization Based on Race - Are Black Patients Underrepresented?

2019

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6935522/


__________________________________

 
Ontogenetic study of the scapula among some Egyptians: Forensic implications in age and sex estimation using Multidetector Computed Tomography

June 2016

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2090536X15000301

__________________________________


Uncommon injury: Scapular body fracture

https://www.sportsinjurybulletin.com/uncommon-injury-scapular-body-fracture/

__________________________________



Morphometric Analysis of the Scapula and Their Differences between Females and Males

2016

https://scielo.conicyt.cl/pdf/ijmorphol/v34n3/art57.pdf

 

__________________________________

Grip Strength in Different Positions of Elbow and Shoulder

1993

https://www.archives-pmr.org/article/0003-9993(94)90142-2/pdf

 

__________________________________

 

 Why Germany's Coronavirus Death Rate Is Far Lower Than In Other Countries

March 25, 2020

https://www.npr.org/2020/03/25/820595489/why-germanys-coronavirus-death-rate-is-far-lower-than-in-other-countries?utm_source=pocket-newtab


__________________________________

 Germany's devolved logic is helping it win the coronavirus race

April 5, 2020



https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/apr/05/germanys-devolved-logic-is-helping-it-win-the-coronavirus-race


With 400 public health offices forging ahead with testing, the country is a model for others to emulate

     (Germany’s approach to testing has put it way ahead of other countries in terms of numbers).



__________________________________





 Coronavirus: Iceland’s mass testing finds half of carriers show no symptoms

https://english.alarabiya.net/en/features/2020/03/25/Coronavirus-Iceland-s-mass-testing-finds-half-of-carriers-show-no-symptoms

 Unlike other countries, where people are only tested if they exhibit symptoms of coronavirus or have come into contact with known spreaders, the country is testing thousands of people from the general population who don’t exhibit any symptoms of the virus whatsoever – helping to reveal information about the nature of the pathogen and its symptoms.

While Iceland has only 218 confirmed cases among its tiny population, its testing program has produced crucial data about the coronavirus - that half of those who were tested positive have no coronavirus symptoms.

This confirms multiple pieces of scientific research that have shown that coronavirus is spread more through people with the virus who show no sign of being sick. Researchers from The University of Texas at Austin had found out that more than 10 percent of patients were infected by somebody who has the virus but does not yet have symptoms.

“Early results from deCode Genetics indicate that a low proportion of the general population has contracted the virus and that about half of those who tested positive are non-symptomatic,” Thorolfur Guðnason, Iceland’s chief epidemiologist, was quoted as saying BuzzFeed News. “The other half displays very moderate cold-like symptoms.”

Icelandic authorities claimed they had tested a higher proportion of the citizens than anywhere else in the world.

“Iceland’s population puts it in the unique position of having very high testing capabilities with help from the Icelandic medical research company deCode Genetics, who are offering to perform large scale testing,” Guðnason said to Buzzfeed.

“This data can also become a valuable resource for scientific studies of the virus in the future,” he added.

40 mutations of the virus

Iceland's high-volume testing also involves genetic sequencing of the different samples of the virus, which helps researchers to investigate the various mutations of the virus.

Icelandic scientists say testing has already revealed that there are at least 40 mutations of coronavirus in Iceland, and the virus might develop to become more contagious, but less dangerous. These variants can also act as the fingerprints of the virus to trace its origin. Seven of the infected people were traced to an undisclosed football match in England, the team said.

__________________________________




 Finland's Fascinating Genes

 April. 2005

The people in this land of lakes and forests are so alike that scientists can filter out the genes that contribute to heart disease, diabetes, and asthma

 http://discovermagazine.com/2005/apr/29-finlands-fascinating-genes

 

_____________________________________

 

4/15/2020 - Coronavirus Investigation News - Race Virus 201 - Pollution Science 101 (COVID-19 & SARS-CoV-2)

https://coronavirusinvestigation.blogspot.com

 

_____________________________________

_____________________________________

_____________________________________

__________________________________

__________________________________

__________________________________


Section 24: The Future Race of Humans

__________________________________

__________________________________

__________________________________

_____________________________________

_____________________________________

Stephen Hawking’s ‘Superhumans’ –“There Will be a Race of Self-Designing Beings”

Oct 14, 2018

https://dailygalaxy.com/2018/10/stephen-hawking-predicted-race-of-superhumans-there-will-be-a-race-of-self-designing-beings/


“Once such superhumans appear, there are going to be significant political problems with the unimproved humans, who won’t be able to compete,” suggests the late physicist and author Stephen Hawking in The Sunday Times. “Presumably, they will die out, or become unimportant. Instead, there will be a race of self-designing beings who are improving themselves at an ever-increasing rate. If the human race manages to redesign itself, it will probably spread out and colonize other planets and stars.”

Hawking has caused an uproar by suggesting a new race of superhumans could develop from wealthy people choosing to edit their DNA. “There is no time to wait for Darwinian evolution to make us more intelligent and better natured. But we are now entering a new phase of what might be called self-designed evolution, in which we will be able to change and improve our DNA. We have now mapped DNA, which means we have read “the book of life”, so we can start writing in corrections.”

Hawking, who died in March, presented the possibility that genetic engineering could create a new species of superhuman that could destroy the rest of humanity. The essays, published in the Sunday Times, were written in preparation for a book that will be published on Tuesday.

“At first,” Hawking writes, “these changes will be confined to the repair of genetic defects — such as cystic fibrosis and muscular dystrophy, which are controlled by single genes and so are fairly easy to identify and correct. Other qualities, such as intelligence, are probably controlled by a large number of genes, and it will be much more difficult to find them and work out the relations between them.

“Nevertheless, I am sure that during this century people will discover how to modify both intelligence and instincts such as aggression. Laws will probably be passed against genetic engineering with humans. But some people won’t be able to resist the temptation to improve human characteristics, such as size of memory, resistance to disease and length of life.”

__________________________________

Could we be replaced by a race of genetically modified superhumans?

December 28, 2018

https://www.richardvanhooijdonk.com/blog/en/could-we-be-replaced-by-a-race-of-genetically-modified-superhumans/

 

__________________________________

This 1972 Documentary Predicted We'd Choose Our Own Skin Colors

6/16/15

https://paleofuture.gizmodo.com/this-1972-documentary-predicted-wed-choose-our-own-skin-1711780983


Will it be commonplace for people of the future to get their skin color artificially changed? Not just black or white or brown, but also orange and blue and grey? The 1972 documentary Future Shock, hosted by legendary director Orson Welles, imagined just such a world. “What happens to race?” Welles asks, when people can choose to be different colors?


__________________________________

Future Shock (Color of People)

Apr 23, 2011

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vphblHHtZCU&feature=emb_title

 

__________________________________


Survey X: Artificial Intelligence and the Future of Humans

http://www.elon.edu/e-web/imagining/surveys/2018_survey/AI_and_the_Future_of_Humans.xhtml

 

__________________________________

The intrinsically linked future for human and Artificial Intelligence interaction

May 13, 2019

https://journalofbigdata.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s40537-019-0202-7

 

__________________________________

Human race will 'split into two different species'

October 2007

https://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-489653/Human-race-split-different-species.html

 

 The human race will one day split into two separate species, an attractive, intelligent ruling elite and an underclass of dim-witted, ugly goblin-like creatures, according to a top scientist.

100,000 years into the future, sexual selection could mean that two distinct breeds of human will have developed.

The alarming prediction comes from evolutionary theorist Oliver Curry from the London School of Economics, who says that the human race will have reached its physical peak by the year 3000.

 

__________________________________

Godlike 'Homo Deus' Could Replace Humans as Tech Evolves

May 31, 2017

https://www.nbcnews.com/mach/technology/godlike-homo-deus-could-replace-humans-tech-evolves-n757971


Evolution is a slow affair, taking some 5 million years to turn a chimpanzee-like creature into us. But what happens when we push down the accelerator and take command of our bodies and brains instead of leaving it to nature? What happens when biotechnology and artificial intelligence merge, allowing us to re-design our species to meet our whims and desires?

Historian Yuval Noah Harari explores these questions in his runaway bestseller, "Homo Deus: A Brief History of Tomorrow," a kind of sequel to his 2014 book, "Sapiens." The title of his new book suggests a startling stage in our evolution: Homo sapiens (“wise man”), far from being the pinnacle of creation, is a temporary creature, one soon to be replaced by Homo deus (“god man”).

“It is very likely, within a century or two, Homo sapiens, as we have known it for thousands of years, will disappear,” Harari told an audience at the Carnegie Council for Ethics in International Affairs recently. “Not because, like in some Hollywood science fiction movie, the robots will come and kill us, but rather because we will use technology to upgrade ourselves — or at least some of us — into something different; something which is far more different from us than we are different from Neanderthals.”

Harari makes no pretense of being able to peer into the future — but the advances humans have made suggest where we may be heading. Breakthroughs in biotechnology, including gene-editing methods like CRISPR, hint at the power we’ll soon have to change our genes, our bodies, and perhaps our brains.

At the same time, advances in artificial intelligence, including machine learning, may soon let us build brain-computer interfaces that will blur the line between man and machine. So far, we’ve muddled along as biological creatures, but we may one day become something new — a novel mix of the biological and the technological; of flesh and silicon...



__________________________________

What could drive humans to extinction?

July 25, 2020

https://www.livescience.com/human-extinction-causes.html



__________________________________

Scientists Can Design ‘Better’ Babies. Should They?

2018

https://www.nytimes.com/2018/06/10/us/11retro-baby-genetics.html

 


__________________________________

Forecast | Engineering the perfect baby: Future of Human Evolution P2

 

https://www.quantumrun.com/prediction/engineering-perfect-baby-future-human-evolution-p2


__________________________________



The future of gene editing: ending disease or creating super-soldiers or a master race? Why rules are needed

Dec, 2018

https://www.scmp.com/lifestyle/health-wellness/article/2179853/future-gene-editing-ending-disease-or-creating-super

Chinese scientist He Jiankui’s intentions in creating world’s first genetically modified human babies were ostensibly good, but the technology has clear risks
 
Scientists and a biohacker think it inevitable people will seek to use it for self-enhancement, making global regulation of its use vitally important



__________________________________

If You Could Design Your Baby’s Genes, Would You?

December 09, 2015

We finally have the tools to achieve an old dream: better-quality humans. Will anyone stop us?

https://www.politico.com/magazine/story/2015/12/crispr-gene-editing-213425




__________________________________



What Will Humans Look Like in 100,000 Years?

October 29, 2018

https://www.treehugger.com/what-will-humans-look-like-in-years-4863827

 

 The future is always unknown, especially the distant future, but that shouldn’t stop us from making educated guesses. That’s exactly what artist and researcher Nickolay Lamm did with help from Dr. Alan Kwan, who has a doctorate in computational genomics from Washington University. Their starting point was the question: “What do you think the human face might look like in 100,000 years and why?”

 

 

 



Image: 20,000 years 

 

 

 

Image: 100,000 years


__________________________________

How The Human Face Might Look In 100,000 Years

Jun 7, 2013

https://www.forbes.com/sites/parmyolson/2013/06/07/how-the-human-face-might-look-in-100000-years/#569a18f45a96

 

__________________________________

What will humans look like in a million years?

 

 

 

https://www.bbcearth.com/blog/%3Farticle%3Dwhat-will-humans-look-like-in-a-million-years/

 

__________________________________

The Future Humans

https://www.pinterest.com/pin/386746686721487216/

 

__________________________________

{I do not think there will just be one race of human in the future}.

__________________________________

In the Future, Humans Will Be One Race

 

 

https://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/InTheFutureHumansWillBeOneRace


__________________________________



Designer babies are on the way. We're not ready

August 16, 2019

https://www.cnn.com/2019/08/16/opinions/gene-edit-dangers-opinion-klitzman/index.html

 

__________________________________

What humans will look like in 1,000 years

Apr 29, 2017

 

https://www.businessinsider.com/what-humans-look-like-1000-years-2017-4

 

__________________________________

Nikola Tesla’s prediction for the future of the human race.

May 15th, 2016

https://www.abzu2.com/nikola-teslas-prediction-for-the-future-of-the-human-race/

 

__________________________________


Nikola Tesla's prediction for the future of the human race.

Jan 5, 2011

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4aF2J6ZJsdw&feature=emb_title

 

__________________________________


How genetic engineering will reshape humanity

A book excerpt and interview with Jamie Metzl, author of “Hacking Darwin”

Apr 25th 2019

https://www.economist.com/open-future/2019/04/25/how-genetic-engineering-will-reshape-humanity

__________________________________

I think the human race has no future if it doesn’t go to space

Sep 26, 2016

https://www.theguardian.com/science/2016/sep/26/i-think-the-human-race-has-no-future-if-it-doesnt-go-to-space


__________________________________


Racism ‘won’t go away’ even if we’re all mixed-race in the future

June 18, 2019

https://metro.co.uk/2019/06/18/racism-wont-go-away-even-if-were-all-mixed-race-in-the-future-9842011/


__________________________________


Why Mixed-Race Americans Will Not Save The Country

March 8, 2017

https://www.npr.org/sections/codeswitch/2017/03/08/519010491/why-mixed-race-americans-will-not-save-the-country

___________________________________




Human Testing, the Eugenics Movement, and IRBs

2008

https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/human-testing-the-eugenics-movement-and-irbs-724/

 

__________________________________




The US white majority will soon disappear forever

By 2050, the US will be a 'majority-minority' country, with white non-Hispanics making up less than half of the total population.

May 16, 2019

https://www.chicagoreporter.com/the-us-white-majority-will-soon-disappear-forever/

 

__________________________________

White Europeans: An endangered species?

Feb 27, 2008

https://yaledailynews.com/blog/2008/02/27/white-europeans-an-endangered-species/

__________________________________

The last days of a white world

We are near a global watershed - a time when white people will not be in the majority in the developed world, Britain included. Anthony Browne reports

Sep 2000

https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2000/sep/03/race.world


It was news and no news; the most significant milestone in one of the most profound changes to affect the US in the past century, and yet a non-event. Last week the US Census Bureau issued figures showing that non-hispanic whites made up 49.8 per cent of the population of California.

Anglo-Saxon whites are already a minority in Hawaii and the District of Columbia. Now they are an ethnic minority in the country's most populous state, the one most usually identified with the American dream. 

__________________________________

The National Geographic Twins and the Falsehood of Our Post-Racial Future

March 14, 2018

 

 

https://www.newyorker.com/culture/culture-desk/the-national-geographic-twins-and-the-falsehood-of-our-post-racial-future

__________________________________

 

 Strange but true: Mixed-race twins, one black, one white

January 25, 2019

https://www.babycenter.com/pregnancy/your-baby/strange-but-true-mixed-race-twins-one-black-one-white_10364936

 

__________________________________

 

 The Human Microbiome and the Missing Heritability Problem

June 13, 2017

https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fgene.2017.00080/full


Introduction: GWAS and the Missing Heritability Problem

The broad-sense heritability (H2) of a phenotype is defined as the proportion of phenotypic variation that can be explained by genetic variance. A decade ago, genetic variance was almost impossible to measure accurately and was often assumed from kinship. Parents and offspring were assumed to have a 50% genetic identity between them, as with first siblings, whereas identical twins are assumed to have full identity. These studies are based mainly on pedigree data, so heritability estimates always included the contribution of all causal variants and several assumptions need to be made in order to calculate the heritability of a trait (Visscher et al., 2008). Nowadays, with the advent of Genome-Wide Association Studies (GWAS), estimates of the heritability of a trait can be based on the collection of Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms (SNPs) from populations of unrelated individuals. In order to estimate the narrow-sense heritability of a trait, these studies gather information of thousands of genetic variants and calculate the degree of relatedness between any two individuals through genetic identity. The narrow sense heritability (h2) is defined as the proportion of phenotypic variation that can be explained by genetic linear effects, and since GWAS associates individual SNPs it provides estimations of this type of heritability. As of today, we know more than 50,000 SNPs associated with many important human phenotypes. However, both individual and cumulative effects of these SNPs fall short of explaining the heritability of the phenotype they are associated with (Lee et al., 2011). For example, pedigree studies have shown that 80% of variation in human height comes from genetic effects. GWAS studies have found approximately 50 genetic variants that are associated with human height, but they are only able to explain 5% of height variation. This discrepancy between both measurements occurs in many human traits and is known as the missing heritability problem. Efforts aimed at finding its origin are still ongoing (Manolio et al., 2009; Eskin, 2015).

There are many possible explanations, and no consensus, as to where this missing heritability is hiding. Epigenetics, gene interactions, RNAs, heritability overestimations, small size effect variants, GWAS experimental limitations and many other factors have been proposed as possible reasons behind this problem (Slatkin, 2009; Marian, 2012; Zuk et al., 2012; Grandjean et al., 2013). Nevertheless, we are still unable to explain the complete heritability of human traits. In GWAS, an often reported issue arises when several SNPs are correlated with a given phenotype at a significant level, as these variants usually have small effect sizes. This means that, although many variants may be significantly associated with a single trait, having any one of them does not considerably increase the odds of developing the trait. One example is the LMTK2 variant in humans. Despite having a significant association with prostate cancer, the presence of this particular variant does not raise the odds of a person developing prostate cancer (Zuk et al., 2012). To circumvent some of these problems, updated versions of candidate gene studies have been proposed where instead of screening whole genomes, they choose to deep-sequence specific genes that have been previously identified through GWAS. This approach has a much higher resolution and has been useful for detecting new strong-effect variants (Zuk et al., 2014; Tsai et al., 2015). Nevertheless, these approaches still not provide a definite solution for the missing heritability problem.

In order to make this paper self-contained, in the sections below we first briefly discuss some of the major limitations of current genetic association studies and then review the current understanding of the microbiome and its importance to our physiology. Finally, based on these discussions, we propose as our main hypothesis that the existing gap between the heritability measured by GWAS on the one hand and familial studies on the other hand, can be significantly narrowed by taking into account the genetic and functional diversity of the microbiome, which is still a neglected source of phenotypic variation (Blanco-Gómez et al., 2016). We also provide a general perspective on how this calculations can be performed.

 

__________________________________

 

 See How Much the "Perfect" Female Body Has Changed in 100 Years

August 5, 2020

 

 

https://edition.greatist.com/s/female-body-100-years-1d197e97705f4832?utm_campaign=femalebody100years-e8f115acdb81419b&utm_medium=cpc&utm_source=out&aid=00028bd0426edc3a7a3f142d82860bae66&utm_term=NY+Post&dicbo=v1-09b38c3ddf82d362cd3f36bec7f1ac70-00028bd0426edc3a7a3f142d82860bae66-ha3dkndbmm2tollbmfqtoljumzrgkljzgrswglldgi3dsndemq4ggnjrga

 

__________________________________

 

 

 When Elon Musk Tried to Destroy a Tesla Whistleblower

It started with a Twitter meltdown and ended with a fake mass shooter. A former security manager says the company also spied and spread misinformation.

https://getpocket.com/explore/item/when-elon-musk-tried-to-destroy-a-tesla-whistleblower?utm_source=pocket-newtab

 

__________________________________

 

Elon Musk’s Pig-Brain Implant Is Still a Long Way from ‘Solving Paralysis’

September 2, 2020

https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/elon-musks-pig-brain-implant-is-still-a-long-way-from-solving-paralysis/

 

__________________________________

 

Dinosaurs Could Be Back By 2050 Say Experts

February 15, 2016

https://newspunch.com/dinosaurs-could-be-back-by-2050-say-experts/

 

One of the world’s leading think tanks claims that in future people will be healthier, wealthier and living with dinosaurs.

In the future teenagers will be living like millionaires in futuristic homes built for leisure-time and comfort with robots as servants. They would travel in driver-less cars and supersonic planes. Dinosaurs could also make a comeback around 2050 to join the euphoria, through DNA back-breeding.

 

__________________________________

 

The Brontosaurus Is Back

Decades after scientists decided that the famed dinosaur never actually existed, research says the opposite.

https://getpocket.com/explore/item/the-brontosaurus-is-back?utm_source=pocket-newtab

 

__________________________________

 

 

British Scientists Discover Drug That Regrows Teeth, Fixes Cavities

 

2017

https://newspunch.com/scientists-drug-teeth/

 

 Fillings are set to be consigned to the dustbin of history after British scientists discovered that a drug trialled in Alzheimer’s patients can encourage teeth to regrow and repair themselves by filling in cavities with natural tooth material.

Researchers at King’s College London found that the drug Tideglusib stimulates the stem cells contained in the pulp of teeth so that they generate new dentine – the mineralised material under the enamel.

The breakthrough will reduce the need for fillings of cements, which are prone to infection, can be toxic to the body, and often need replacing a number of times.

Futurism reports: Tideglusib works by stimulating stem cells in the pulp of teeth, the source of new dentine. Dentine is the mineralized substance beneath tooth enamel that gets eaten away by tooth decay.

Teeth can naturally regenerate dentine without assistance, but only under certain circumstances. The pulp must be exposed through infection (such as decay) or trauma to prompt the manufacture of dentine. But even then, the tooth can only regrow a very thin layer naturally—not enough to repair cavities caused by decay, which are generally deep. Tideglusib changes this outcome because it turns off the GSK-3 enzyme, which stops dentine from forming.

 

__________________________________

 

Churchill and Eugenics

https://winstonchurchill.org/publications/finest-hour-extras/churchill-and-eugenics-1/


Such detention, as well as sterilisation, were at that time the two main “cures” to “feeble-mindeness.” They were put forward by the eugenicists, those who believed in “the possibility of improving the qualities of the human species or a human population by such means as discouraging reproduction by persons having genetic defects or presumed to have inheritable undesirable traits (negative eugenics) or encouraging reproduction by persons presumed to have inheritable desirable traits (positive eugenics).”

In introducing its recommendations in 1908, the Royal Commission On the Care and Control of the Feeble-Minded-one of whose eight members was the chairman of the eugenics-influenced National Association for Promoting the Welfare of the Feeble-Minded-expressed its concern about “the numbers of mentally defective persons” in Britain “whose training is neglected, over whom no sufficient control is exercised and whose wayward and irresponsible lives are productive of crime and misery…and of much continuous expenditure wasteful to the community.” The Royal Commission suggested that permanent institutional care was the means to establish control over the feeble-minded. It also advocated the establishment of industrial “colonies” with schools.

__________________________________

Ruth Bader Ginsburg and a question of eugenics

July 16, 2009

https://www.chicagotribune.com/news/ct-xpm-2009-07-16-0907150564-story.html


Here's what Supreme Court Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg said in Sunday's New York Times Magazine: "Frankly I had thought that at the time [Roe vs. Wade] was decided," Ginsburg told her interviewer, Emily Bazelon, "there was concern about population growth and particularly growth in populations that we don't want to have too many of."

The comment, which bizarrely elicited no follow-up from Bazelon or any further coverage from The New York Times -- or any other major news outlet -- was in the context of Medicaid funding for abortion.

Ginsburg was surprised when the Supreme Court in 1980 barred taxpayer support for abortions for poor women. After all, if poverty partly described the population you had "too many of," you would want to subsidize it in order to expedite the reduction of unwanted populations.

Left unclear is whether Ginsburg endorses the eugenic motivation she ascribed to the passage of Roe vs. Wade or whether she was merely objectively describing it. One senses that if Antonin Scalia had offered such a comment, a Times interviewer would have sought more clarity, particularly on the racial characteristics of these supposedly unwanted populations.

 

__________________________________

 

How A Gene For Fair Skin Spread Across India

2013

https://www.popsci.com/article/science/how-gene-fair-skin-spread-across-india/

 

 

 

 

Worldwide Distribution of a Gene for Fair Skin

Red dots correspond to locations where researchers took samples from people for gene analysis.

A study of skin color in the Indian subcontinent shows the complex movements of populations there.

Cover Girl, Maybelline, are you listening? A new study of skin color in South Asians finds they have enormous diversity, with a color range that's three times larger than that for East Asians or Europeans. Pretty cool. Another cool bit of trivia: The gene that makes some South Asians fairer is the same gene that makes Europeans fairer than most of the world. Fair East Asians, on the other hand, owe their color to a different gene.

The study provides a glimpse into the movements of early humans, as they populated new lands and latitudes. For example, our trivia above tells us fair skin evolved in two separate events for Europeans/South Asians and East Asians.

A team of biologists from Europe, India and Australia examined the genes of more than 1,600 South Asian people. Although previous studies had found three genes play a part in skin color in South Asians, the researchers zeroed in on the one gene identified as most important, SLC24A5. (One of the other important genes is SLC45A2, which happens to be the gene that makes white tigers.) In fact, the researchers mostly examined just one form of SLC24A5, called allele A. Allele A is what makes Europeans and some South Asians fairer.

The researchers looked for how prevalent allele A was in different South Asian populations as clues to how those populations' ancestors might have spread over the Indian subcontinent. The study volunteers included 43 ethnic groups and 54 "distinct tribal and caste populations," according to a paper about the study, which was published in the journal PLOS Genetics.

The researchers found a complex history of movement in this part of the world. Of course, people knew about this already, from tales and histories, but it's interesting to see that those stories are also marked in people's genomes.

The skin-color genes of the people of the Indian subcontinent defied one well-known pattern in color in the world. Generally, people living in—or descended from people living in—higher latitudes tend to be fairer. Some scientists think that evolution drove the appearance of fairer skin in populations that moved further north, because in less-sunny climes, paler people would be less prone to vitamin D deficiency. But the latitudes that the Indian subcontinent spans shouldn't be enough to drive this kind of diversity in skin color, the researchers say. In addition, allele A isn't spread among South Indians in a north-south pattern. (See the map up top.)

Instead, the fairer form of SLC24A5 is associated with people's languages, specific geographic areas, and ancestry. For example, Brahmins, no matter where they're from in India, tend to have allele A. Another example: In one South Indian group, the Saurashtrians, 70 percent of people have allele A. It's believed Saurashtrians moved south from a more northern region during the Middle Ages, when Southern Indian kings invited them to the area for their silk weaving skill. All of this contrasts with SLC24A5 in Europeans, in whom allele A is nearly ubiquitous, and appears almost entirely driven by evolution.

This should be a reminder that there are a lot of ways skin color got distributed across the Earth, the researchers wrote in their paper. It's also yet another step to understanding how people's genes make their skin color, a complex process involving many genes that scientists still don't understand very well.

__________________________________

 

Social factors too define skin colour of Indians

August 18, 2018

https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/science/social-factors-too-define-skin-colour-of-indians/article24725780.ece

 

__________________________________

 

Bleached girls: India and its love for light skin

July 21, 2017

https://theconversation.com/bleached-girls-india-and-its-love-for-light-skin-80655

__________________________________

 

In countries like India, skin colour matters when you are a migrant

December 17, 2019

https://qz.com/india/1770240/in-nations-like-india-skin-colour-matters-when-you-are-a-migrant/

__________________________________

 

 Let’s talk about racism | Why Indian Americans have a white skin fixation

Attitudes of Indians toward African-Americans seem to be as much about how they perceive themselves on colour bar

May 23, 2017

https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/let-s-talk-about-racism-prejudice-of-indians-a-form-of-self-denial/story-gY8GXUuTF6SM4LeoCPkNVI.html

__________________________________

 

What is White Skin?

https://www.letspleasegod.com/white-skin-origin-racism-pt11/  {Debated}

__________________________________

 

 Ancient Human Genomes...Present-Day Europeans - Johannes Krause

Jan 27, 2016

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Dk65TbJRN_A

 

__________________________________

Historical definitions of races in India

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historical_definitions_of_races_in_India

Great races

Scientific racism of the late 19th and early 20th centuries divided humans into four races: Caucasoid (white), Mongoloid (yellow), Negroid (black) and Australoid.

The indigenous population of India was assumed to be intermediate between Caucasoid and Australoid. Edgar Thurston[year needed] named this type Homo Dravida and described it close to Australoids, with Caucasoid (Indo-Aryan) admixture. As evidence, he adduced the use of the boomerang by Kallar and Maravar warriors and the proficiency at tree-climbing among both the Kadirs of the Anamalai hills and the Dayaks of Borneo.

__________________________________

Racial Classification of Indian People (by Different Anthropologist)

https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/essay/anthropology/racial-classification-of-indian-people-by-different-anthropologist/41839


1. The Dravidian type:

The stature of these people is short or below medium. The complexion is dark, approaching to black. The hair is similarly dark and plentiful with an occasional tendency to curl. The eye colour is also dark. The head is long and the nose is very broad, sometimes depressed at the root.


2. The Indo-Aryan type:

This type is the most close to the traditional Aryans who colonized India. The people are tall statured with fair complexion, dark eyes, and plentiful hair on face and body. They also possess predominant longhead (dolichocephalic), narrow and long (leptorrhine) nose. The type is confined to Punjab, Rajasthan and Kashmir where the members are known as the Kashmiri Brahmins, Rajputs, Jats and the Khattris.


3. The Mongoloid type:

The most important characteristic features of this type are broad-head, dark complexion with yellowish tinge and scanty hair on face and body. The stature is usually short or below medium. The nose shows a wide range of variation, from fine to broad.


4. The Aryo-Dravidian type:


This type is known as the Hindustani type. Generally the heads of the people are long with a tendency towards medium. The complexion varies from light brown to black. The nose is usually medium, although the broad nose is not uncommon. But in this case, the broad nose is always broader than the nose of Indo-Aryans. In stature, the people are shorter than the Indo-Aryans who usually show a below average height; i.e. the height ranges from 159cm to 166cm.

Thus, the Aryo- Dravidians is differentiated from the Indo-Aryans. The type is considered as an intermixture of the Aryans and the Dravidians in varying proportions. The people of this type are found in Uttar Pradesh, in some parts of Rajasthan and in Bihar.

5. The Mongolo-Dravidian type:

This type is known as the Bengali type. The members of this type are characterized by broad and round heads with a tendency towards medium dark complexion and plentiful hair on face. The nose is usually medium with a tendency towards flatness.


6. The Scytho-Dravidian type:

The people of this type possess medium to broad head, low to medium stature, fair complexion, and a moderately fine nose, which is not conspicuously long. The hair is scanty on face and body. It is held that the type has been evolved by the intermixture of two distinct racial strains—the Scythians and the Dravidians.

7. The Turko-Iranian type:

This type is characterized by broad heads and fine to medium nose, which is long and prominent. The stature is fairly tall and the average height of the males varies from 162cm to 172cm. Although the eyes are dark in colour, grey eyes are not uncommon. Complexion of the people is generally fair; plentiful hair is found on face and body.

The type includes the inhabitants of Afghanistan, Baluchistan and Northwest Frontier Provinces (now in Pakistan) who are represented by the Balochis, Brahai, Afghans and some other people of NWFP. In the view of Risley, this type has been formed probably by the fusion of Turki and Persian elements in which the former’s features predominate.


B. Classification of Giufrida-Ruggeri (1921):

Subsequent to Risley’s attempt many other anthropologists tried to analyze Indian people.

Giufrida- Ruggeri made the following six-fold ethnic classification for the people of India:


1. Negrito: Veddas and some South Indian jungle tribes.

2. Pre-Dravidian orAustraloid Veddic: Santals, Oraons, Mundas, etc.

3. Dravidian: Tamil and Telugu speaking people.

4. Tall dolichocephalic element: Toda.

5. Dolichocephalic Aryan : (Homo dolichomorphus): Indo-Afghans, Indo-Iranians, etc.

6. brachycephalic leucoderm – (Homo Indo-European brachymorphus) – Armenians, Georgeanus, etc.

In contrast to H.H. Risley, Giufrida-Ruggeri had mentioned the Veddas and some South Indian forest dwelling tribes as possessing the Negrito element. He categorized the Indo-Afghans, Indo- Iranians, etc. under dolichocephalic Aryans.

In his consideration, the brachycephalic leucoderms was a type, which included the Armenians and the peoples of Pamir and Georgia. He was inspired by the language based racial classification of his predecessor Sir H. H. Risley. But Giufrida-Ruggeri’s classification was too short to denote the enormous variation of physical types that exist among the peoples of India.

C. Classification of A.C. Haddon (1924):

A.C. Haddon did not agree with Risley and gave his own analysis about the racial elements in India. He divided India into three main geographical regions—(a) Himalayas, (b) the Northern plains or Hindustan and (c) the Southern plateau or the Deccan which is mostly covered by the jungles. He had dealt with each of these three regions, separately, for the reconstruction of racial elements in them.

The Himalayan region:

Two principal types are found in this region:

(i) Indo-Aryan:

People of this type show tall stature, brown skin colour with varying shades, dolichocephalic head with straight fine leptorrhine nose, well-developed forehead and a long narrow face. This type is represented by the Kanets of Kulu Valley. In Eastern Punjab the Indo-Aryan Kanets exhibit a trace of Tibetan blood.

(ii) Mongoloid:

According to Haddon, this type dominates in North Eastern India. In fact, the main racial element of North East Frontier Agency of India is the Mongoloid and the representatives are the Lepcha, Garo, Naga, Khasi, Dafla, etc. who show the Mongoloid features.

Haddon identified several racial elements among the tribes of Assam, which have been accumulated due to various invasions at different times. Among these elements the brachycephalic leptorrhine, came from the north and has been converted into Eurasiatic group.

The brachycephalic platyrrhine is a variety of Pareoean. Further, the dolichocephalic element has entered from the main land of India into the population of Assam. Some Dravidian elements are also seen. Beside Assam, the people of Nepal, Bhutan, Kashmir and Punjab, show Mongoloid features very prominently.

The Northern plains or Hindustan region:

The Indo-Afghan is the predominating type of this region. The people are characterized by dolichocephalic head with straight fine leptorrhine nose, well-developed forehead and a long narrow face. Stature ranges from medium to tall, eyes are dark on light brown complexion.

The hair is black and wavy. The representative populations are the Jats and the Rajputs and others. But the places where the members of this type have mixed with the aboriginal people, the admixture peoples are assumed as the lower caste people. The Deccan region or Southern plateau

The different racial elements of this region as found by Haddon are as follows:

1. Negrito:

Some people of this area show Negrito racial strain. Their physical characteristics include medium head, flat nose, flattened occiput, protruding forehead and very dark skin colour. The hair is black and the eyes are brown. The lips are somewhat fleshy and everted. The best representatives are the Kadars of Cochin, the Urallis of Nilgiri Hills and the Pullayans of Palni Hills. On the other hand, Andamanese represent a true Negrito racial element.

2. Pre-Dravidian:

This is the oldest existing stratum of Indian population. The people are characterized by dolichocephalic heads, short stature, and very dark skin with black hair. The hair form varies from wavy to very curly. The representative populations are Bhils, Gonds, Santals, Oraons, Hos, Mundas, etc.

3. Dravidian:

The Dravidians are characterized by the dolichocephalic heads, medium stature, brownish black skin colour and the mesorrhine nose. They possess plentiful hair, which are wavy with an occasional tendency to curl. The people of South India speaking Tamil, Malayalam, Telegu, Canarese, etc. belong to this type.

4. Southern brachycephals:

This type is characterized by Mesocephalic to brachycephalic head and mesorrhine nose. The complexion is brownish black. However, the features are represented by the Paniyans of the Tamil district and the Pavara fishermen of the Tinnevalley coast.

5. Western Brachycephals:

Haddon had traced a zone of broad-headed people extending from Gujarat to Coorg, along the Western coastal area of India. The people are characterized by brachycephalic heads, almost leptorrhine nose, light brown skin colour and tall stature. Risley had mentioned these people as the Scytho-Dravidians. The best examples are the Nagar Brahmins of Gujarat, the Prabhu, the Maratha of Maharashtra, etc.

Haddon’s classification was based mainly on physical characters, artifacts, customs, languages and folk-tales. He justified his own analysis by the help of the evidences. According to his analysis, the oldest people of India must have been the Pre-Dravidians.

The Dravidians also lived in India as the original inhabitants at the banks of the Ganges in Western Bengal. The Aryan-speaking people came on this subcontinent in the second millennium BC and spread over the fertile regions of the Punjab.

Gradually, they occupied the valleys of the Jamuna and the Ganges. The main drawback of Haddon’s analysis was that he did not mention anything regarding the Pre-Aryans of India. The brachycephalic element in India is Alpine in origin as analyzed by Haddon.
D. Classification of Eickstedt (1934):

Fuherer von Eickstedt had made the German Indian Anthropological Expedition to India during 1926-29. He classified the Indian people in 1934, both from physical and cultural perspectives. Basically he was inspired by the variation in skin colour of the Indian people and suggested four main ethnic elements as constituents of the population in India.

I. Weddid or Ancient Indians:

These are the primitive people living in the forest. Two sub-types are distinguished here.

(a) Gondid:

These people show dark brown complexion and curly hair. They are totemistic in belief and use mattock. Matriarchal influence is noticed among them. The Oraons, Gonds, Bhils etc. are the best examples of this sub-type.

(b) Malid:

These people are characterized by curly hair with black-brown colour. Their culture is ancient but now they have been influenced by alien culture. People like Kurumbas, Veddas, etc. represent this sub-type.

II. Melanid or Black Indians:

Racially it is a mixed group, which is divided into two sub-groups.

(a) South Melanid:

This sub-group is characterized by black-brown skin colour. People live in the Southern most plains of India and possess strong matriarchal influence. The typical example of this group is the Yanaadi.

(b) Kolid:

This sub-group includes the primitive people characterized by black-brown skin colour who live in the North Deccan forests. They hold strong totemistic beliefs and prominent matriarchal influence. The best examples are the Santals and the Mundas.

III. Indid or New Indians:

These people are racially more advanced and occupy the open regions of India. They are fiirther sub-divided into two sub-groups.

(a) Gracile Indid:

This sub-group is characterized by brown skin colour with gracile appearance. The people show strong patriarchal influence as found among the Bengalis.

(b) North Indid:

This sub-group possesses light brown skin colour. People are patriarchal in nature. The best examples of this type are the Todas and the Rajputs.

IV. Palae-Mongoloid:

These people show certain incipient Mongoloid characters. The best examples are the Palayan of Wynad.

Eickstedt’s classification is regarded as a proper attempt to classify Indian population. Although it was open to severe criticism, but it had a great scope. So, later it was extended with necessary changes and additions. Efforts of B. S. Guha made it more convincing.
E. Classification of B.S. Guha (1937):

Dr. B. S. Guha’s racial classification is based on anthropometric measurements, which were collected during his investigations from 1930 to 1933. Guha traced six major racial strains and nine sub-types among the modem Indian population.

1. The Negrito

2. The Proto-Australoid

3. The Mongoloid

a) Palaeo-Mongoloid

i) Long-headed

ii) Broad-headed

b) Tibeto-Mongoloid

4. The Mediterranean

a) Palae-Mediterranean

b) Mediterranean

c) Oriental

5. The Western Brachycephals

a) Alpinoid

b) Armenoid

c) Dinaric

6. The Nordics



__________________________________

Race (human categorization)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race_(human_categorization)

 

_____________________________________

_____________________________________

__________________________________

__________________________________

__________________________________


Section 25: Jews

__________________________________

__________________________________

__________________________________

_____________________________________

_____________________________________

 

Genetic markers cannot determine Jewish descent

2014

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4301023/

Abstract

Humans differentiate, classify, and discriminate: social interaction is a basic property of human Darwinian evolution. Presumably inherent differential physical as well as behavioral properties have always been criteria for identifying friend or foe. Yet, biological determinism is a relatively modern term, and scientific racism is, oddly enough, largely a consequence or a product of the Age of Enlightenment and the establishment of the notion of human equality. In recent decades ever-increasing efforts and ingenuity were invested in identifying Biblical Israelite genotypic common denominators by analysing an assortment of phenotypes, like facial patterns, blood types, diseases, DNA-sequences, and more. It becomes overwhelmingly clear that although Jews maintained detectable vertical genetic continuity along generations of socio-religious-cultural relationship, also intensive horizontal genetic relations were maintained both between Jewish communities and with the gentile surrounding. Thus, in spite of considerable consanguinity, there is no Jewish genotype to identify.


__________________________________



Population structure of modern-day Italians reveals patterns of ancient and archaic ancestries in Southern Europe

September 4, 2019

https://advances.sciencemag.org/content/5/9/eaaw3492



__________________________________

Ancient human genome-wide data froma 3000-year interval in the Caucasuscorresponds with eco-geographic regions

2019

https://reich.hms.harvard.edu/sites/reich.hms.harvard.edu/files/inline-files/Wang_2019_NatureC.pdf


__________________________________

No Evidence from Genome-Wide Data of a Khazar Origin for the Ashkenazi Jews

December 2013

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/264390976_No_Evidence_from_Genome-Wide_Data_of_a_Khazar_Origin_for_the_Ashkenazi_Jews



__________________________________


Constructing Jewish Bodies in Germany through Physical Culture and Racial Pseudo-Science

May 2018

https://www.newpaltz.edu/media/department-of-history/alperin_paper.pdf


__________________________________


Is the Jew White?: The Racial Place of the Southern Jew

September 1997

https://www.jstor.org/stable/23885563?seq=1


__________________________________

Stereotypes of Jews

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stereotypes_of_Jews


__________________________________


Anti-Semitic Stereotypes of the Jewish Body


Folk beliefs about horns and big noses have served to demonize Jews--and even Jews themselves have not been exempt from distorted images of their bodies.

https://www.myjewishlearning.com/article/anti-semitic-stereotypes-of-the-jewish-body/


__________________________________

The ‘Secret Jews’ of San Luis Valley

October 2008

In Colorado, the gene linked to a virulent form of breast cancer found mainly in Jewish women is discovered in Hispanic Catholics

https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/the-secret-jews-of-san-luis-valley-11765512/

 

__________________________________


The Uniqueness of Ashkenazi Jewish Ancestry is Important for Health

May 22, 2012

https://blog.23andme.com/ancestry-reports/ashkenazi-ancestry-and-health/

 

__________________________________

Ashkenazi Jews and Crohn's: What's the Connection?

November 12, 2018

https://www.cedars-sinai.org/blog/ashkenazi-jews-and-crohns-whats-the-connection.html


__________________________________


Judge rules that Judaism is not a race but Jewish people can be targeted for racism. Here's why that matters.

2018

A timely new court ruling is a reminder that human racial difference are based in prejudice, not fact.

https://www.nbcnews.com/think/opinion/judge-rules-judaism-not-race-jewish-people-can-be-targeted-ncna896806

__________________________________


Ginger Jews

April 7, 2015

https://www.judaismandscience.com/ginger-jews/



The MC1R gene appears to be recessive. Typically, for an individual to be born with red hair, both parents must be carriers of an MC1R gene and the MC1R gene from both must combine in the fertilized egg. MC1R operates on two pigments, eumelanin and pheomelanin, and, in general, the more of the latter, the redder the hair. But MC1R is also quite variable, and may be subject to being influenced by modifiers. In fact, according to University of Delaware Professor John H. McDonald in “Red hair color: The myth,” the genetics of hair color is “complicated.”

While human hair color varies enormously, from the lightest blonde to the darkness black, red hair manifests itself only in about 1% of humans worldwide. (See here.) Individuals with red hair can be found around the globe, but the greatest concentrations are in Northern European populations, and in particular, in Scotland and Ireland where, respectively, 13% and 10% of the population are redheads. One theory is that genetic material for red hair was favored in such areas because it would allow for the production of Vitamin D in circumstances of low sunlight and ultra-violet radiation. The prevalence in the United States is 2%. (Id.)

Data on the prevalence of red hair in Jews is uneven and questionable. Hair color does seem to have been a topic of considerable interest at the end of the nineteenth century and early in the twentieth. An article in the Jewish Encyclopedia published in 1906 contains several tables which collect various observations of hair color in Jews around the world. One table concerns Jewish school children in Central Europe (Austria, Bavaria, Germany and Hungary). While most of the children are indicated to have brown or black hair, approximately one quarter to one-third of these children are said to have blond hair. The incidence of red hair is less than 1%. A second table concerns hair color among Jews in selected countries throughout Europe. While dark hair again predominates, the frequency of red hair often appears to be 2% or higher, reaching more than 4% in Poland, Galicia and Russia. The information is of doubtful value, however. Among other problems, the size of the sample populations differs greatly from country to country and the method for selecting the individuals is unknown.

A somewhat similar review occurred in New York City, the results of which were published in 1903 by Maurice Fishberg, a physician and anthropologist, in the American Anthropologist. Fishberg’s paper was titled “Physical Anthropology of the Jews.”  With a sample size of almost 2300 Jews twenty years old and older, and reasonably split between males and females, Fishberg found that about 82% of Jews studied had dark hair, meaning black, brown or dark chestnut, while about 15% had fair hair, that is, light chestnut or blond, and about 3% had red hair. (Fishberg, at 92.) The precise percentage of male redheads was 2.53%, and the percentage for females was 3.69%. Fishberg characterized the percentage of red-haired Jews to be “high.” (At 97.) And he stated, without reference to any authority, that “erythrism [a prevalence of red pigmentation] has been regarded as characteristic of the European Jews.” (At 98.) Similarly, he contended that that the condition “appears not to be of recent origin,” referring to the biblical descriptions of Esau and David. (At 98.)



__________________________________

Surprise: Ashkenazi Jews Are Genetically European

October 8, 2013

https://www.livescience.com/40247-ashkenazi-jews-have-european-genes.html


Maternal DNA

Richards and his colleagues analyzed mitochondrial DNA, which is contained in the cytoplasm of the egg and passed down only from the mother, from more than 3,500 people throughout the Near East, the Caucusus and Europe, including Ashkenazi Jews.

The team found that four founders were responsible for 40 percent of Ashkenazi mitochondrial DNA, and that all of these founders originated in Europe. The majority of the remaining people could be traced to other European lineages.

All told, more than 80 percent of the maternal lineages of Ashkenazi Jews could be traced to Europe, with only a few lineages originating in the Near East.

Virtually none came from the North Caucasus, located along the border between Europe and Asia between the Black and Caspian seas.

The finding should thoroughly debunk one of the most questionable, but still tenacious, hypotheses: that most Ashkenazi Jews can trace their roots to the mysterious Khazar Kingdom that flourished during the ninth century in the region between the Byzantine Empire and the Persian Empire, Richards and Ostrer said.

The genetics suggest many of the founding Ashkenazi women were actually converts from local European populations.

"The simplest explanation was that it was mainly women who converted and they married with men who'd come from the Near East," Richards told LiveScience.

Another possibility is that Jews actively converted both men and women among local populations at this time, although researchers would need more detailed study of paternal lineages to test that hypothesis, Richards said.




__________________________________




Implications for health and disease in the genetic signature of the Ashkenazi Jewish population

January 25, 2012

https://genomebiology.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/gb-2012-13-1-r2


Abstract

Background

Relatively small, reproductively isolated populations with reduced genetic diversity may have advantages for genomewide association mapping in disease genetics. The Ashkenazi Jewish population represents a unique population for study based on its recent (< 1,000 year) history of a limited number of founders, population bottlenecks and tradition of marriage within the community. We genotyped more than 1,300 Ashkenazi Jewish healthy volunteers from the Hebrew University Genetic Resource with the Illumina HumanOmni1-Quad platform. Comparison of the genotyping data with that of neighboring European and Asian populations enabled the Ashkenazi Jewish-specific component of the variance to be characterized with respect to disease-relevant alleles and pathways.

Results

Using clustering, principal components, and pairwise genetic distance as converging approaches, we identified an Ashkenazi Jewish-specific genetic signature that differentiated these subjects from both European and Middle Eastern samples. Most notably, gene ontology analysis of the Ashkenazi Jewish genetic signature revealed an enrichment of genes functioning in transepithelial chloride transport, such as CFTR, and in equilibrioception, potentially shedding light on cystic fibrosis, Usher syndrome and other diseases over-represented in the Ashkenazi Jewish population. Results also impact risk profiles for autoimmune and metabolic disorders in this population. Finally, residual intra-Ashkenazi population structure was minimal, primarily determined by class 1 MHC alleles, and not related to host country of origin.

Conclusions

The Ashkenazi Jewish population is of potential utility in disease-mapping studies due to its relative homogeneity and distinct genomic signature. Results suggest that Ashkenazi-associated disease genes may be components of population-specific genomic differences in key functional pathways.

__________________________________

 

 

Why Does the World Hate Black People?

Oct 18, 2018

http://www.umassmedia.com/opinions/why-does-the-world-hate-black-people/article_d72b86a6-14a5-11e7-bb9f-9b0d48b2c81c.html

 

__________________________________

 

 Anti-Black Imagery

https://www.ferris.edu/HTMLS/news/jimcrow/antiblack/

 

__________________________________

 

 Racism in Israel

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racism_in_Israel



 Racism in Israel encompasses all forms and manifestations of racism experienced in Israel, irrespective of the colour or creed of the perpetrator and victim, or their citizenship, residency, or visitor status.

More specifically in the Israeli context, however, racism in Israel refers to racism directed against Israeli Arabs by Israeli Jews, intra-Jewish racism between the various Jewish ethnic divisions (in particular against Ethiopian Jews), historic and current racism towards Mizrahi Jews and Jews of color, and racism on the part of Israeli Arabs against Israeli Jews.

Racism on the part of Israeli Jews against Muslim Arabs in Israel exist in institutional policies, personal attitudes, the media, education, immigration rights, housing, social life and legal policies. Some elements within the Ashkenazi Israeli Jewish population have also been described as holding discriminatory attitudes towards fellow Jews of other backgrounds, including against Ethiopian Jews, Indian Jews, Mizrahi Jews, Sephardi Jews, etc. Although intermarriage between Ashkenazim and Sephardim/Mizrahim is increasingly common in Israel, and social integration is constantly improving, disparities continue to persist. Ethiopian Jews in particular have faced discrimination from non-Black Jews. It has been suggested that the situation of the Ethiopian Jews as 'becoming white' is similar to that of some European immigrants like Poles and Italians who arrived in the United States in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.

Israel has broad anti-discrimination laws that prohibit discrimination by both government and nongovernment entities on the basis of race, religion, and political beliefs, and prohibits incitement to racism. The Israeli government and many groups within Israel have undertaken efforts to combat racism. Israel is a state-party to the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, and is a signatory of the Convention against Discrimination in Education. Israel's President Reuven Rivlin announced to a meeting of academics in October 2014 that it is finally time for Israel to live up to its promise as a land of equality, time to cure the epidemic of racism. "Israeli society is sick, and it is our duty to treat this disease", Rivlin stated.

 

__________________________________

 

Even German science was twisted against the Jews.

Nazi Children's Story: "How to Tell a Jew"

The following story, which describes “Jewish features,” appeared in “Der Giftpilz,” a children's book published by Julius Streicher, the Nazi propagandist and publisher of Der Stürmer.

https://www.aish.com/ho/o/48952076.html

 

__________________________________

 

 Why did Neanderthals have such big noses?

October 2008

https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn15042-why-did-neanderthals-have-such-big-noses/

 

__________________________________

 

 Jews – Modern Day Neanderthals

June 17, 2018

http://www.renegadetribune.com/jews-modern-day-neanderthals/

 

__________________________________

 

Neanderthal DNA has subtle but significant impact on human traits

Feb 11, 2016

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D8vYSiKE3E4

 

__________________________________

Jews have more Neanderthal DNA debunked {Debated}

May 19, 2019

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e-i9K10NHtE

__________________________________

 

Ellagic acid protects against arsenic toxicity in isolated rat mitochondria possibly through the maintaining of complex II

 

2015

https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0960327115618247

 

__________________________________

 

Tzipi Livni caricature

 
https://www.graphicnews.com/en/pages/24082/israel-tzipi-livni-caricature

__________________________________

 

Do Jews and Arabs have more Neanderthal DNA than Europeans?

 
https://www.quora.com/Do-Jews-and-Arabs-have-more-Neanderthal-DNA-than-Europeans?share=1

 

__________________________________

 

Neanderthal genetics

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neanderthal_genetics

 

__________________________________

 

20 physical traits you may have inherited from a Neanderthal

https://www.abroadintheyard.com/20-physical-traits-inherited-from-neanderthal/


__________________________________

Negroid: Division of Negroid Racial Group (African, Oceanic and American Negro)

https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/essay/anthropology/negroid-division-of-negroid-racial-group-african-oceanic-and-american-negro/41837

 

__________________________________

On Family and Fences: Tracing Melungeon Roots in the Blue Ridge Mountains of Virginia and Tennessee the Blue Ridge Mountains of Virginia and Tennessee

5-2010

https://pdxscholar.library.pdx.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2974&context=open_access_etds

_____________________________________

 

Eschewing the Nose Job in Image-Conscious L.A.


https://forward.com/sisterhood/322508/the-nose-job-in-la/


_____________________________________

Nose Jobs Are No Longer A Thing Among Teenage Jewish Girls

https://www.businessinsider.com/nose-job-numbers-shoot-down-for-jews-2012-6

_____________________________________

What's with Jews and their noses?

https://www.theapricity.com/forum/archive/index.php/t-65358.html


_____________________________________

Let's Talk about Chelsea Peretti's Nose

http://celestiaward.blogspot.com/2014/12/lets-talk-about-chelsea-perettis-nose.html


_____________________________________

 Of Mongrels and Jews: The Deconstruction of Racialised Identities in White Supremacist Discourse

https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/13504639752050

ABSTRACT

This research explores the construction of race and mixed race identities in a wide variety of white supremacist newsletters and periodicals published between 1969 and 1993. While traditional accounts of the white supremacist movement treat it as a movement concerned with race relations, I read this discourse as a site of the construction of race. In white supremacist discourse, interracial sexuality is defined as the ultimate abomination, and mixed race people pose a particularly strong threat. This paper explores the ways in which mixed race people, and Jews in particular, threaten the construction of a supposedly pure white racial identity. Drawing upon the insights of poststructuralism, this analysis will explore the role of boundary maintenance and the threat of border crossings in the process of constructing racial identities.

_____________________________________

 

Are Jews Smarter?

http://nymag.com/nymetro/news/culture/features/1478/

{Biologically white Jews seem to be smarter than Gypsy Jews. Many of these so-called
white skinned Jews you see running around are really just a hybrid European race}.


_____________________________________

The “Uniqueness” of Ashkenazi Jewish Ancestry is Important for Health

https://blog.23andme.com/ancestry/the-uniqueness-of-ashkenazi-jewish-ancestry-is-important-for-health/


_____________________________________

"Cutting Off Your Nose to Spite Your Race": Jewish Stereotypes, Media Images, Cultural Hybridity

https://www.jstor.org/stable/42944413?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents\

 

_____________________________________

 

{Many claim that the true chosen race of people in the Bible were actually the white Western European people}.

 _____________________________________

 

7/21/2019 - King Solomon's Temple Investigation Marathon - Legend - 

https://solomonstempleinvestigation.blogspot.com

_____________________________________

 

 

_____________________________________

_____________________________________

__________________________________

__________________________________

__________________________________


Section 26: The Asian Race

__________________________________

__________________________________

__________________________________

_____________________________________

_____________________________________

 

 

 

Example sentences from Wikipedia that use the word brachycephalic:     http://www.rhymezone.com/r/rhyme.cgi?loc=ol_ue&typeofrhyme=wke&Word=brachycephalic    

Bostons are brachycephalic breeds. —Boston Terrier

They were described as tall, heavy boned and brachycephalic. —Beaker culture

The head is broad, massive, square, and powerful brachycephalic shape. —Perro de Presa Canario

A typical Alpine skull is therefore regarded as brachycephalic ('broad-headed'). —Alpine race

Brachycephalic dogs such as Boxers and Boston Terriers are most commonly affected. —Cleft lip and cleft palate

It is seen in brachycephalic (short-nosed) dog breeds because of the shallow orbit. —Exophthalmos

The modern brachycephalic Persian has a large rounded skull and shortened face and nose. —Persian cat

The Japanese Chin's flattened brachycephalic face can lead to breathing and eye problems. —Japanese Chin

It is commonly seen in Boxer dogs and other brachycephalic breeds, and in the English Springer Spaniel. —Gingival enlargement

The long, broad, flat head of the Alaunt should never be confused with the modified brachycephalic breeds. —Alaunt

Brachycephalic syndrome is a common problem and mostly affects dogs with short noses (brachycephalic breeds). —Shih Tzu

A typical brachycephalic molossoid type breed, the Bordeaux is a very powerful dog, with a very muscular body. —Dogue de Bordeaux

Like all brachycephalic, or "short faced", breeds, Bulldogs can easily become overheated and even die from hyperthermia. —Bulldog

Several air carriers embargo certain dog breeds, due to the effect of high temperature and humidity on brachycephalic animals. —Pit bull

Human populations were characterized as either dolichocephalic (long headed), mesaticephalic (moderate headed), or brachycephalic (short headed). —Cephalic index

Following the deaths of Pugs and other brachycephalic breeds, several airlines either banned their transport in cargo or enacted seasonal restrictions. —Pug

Wolves and other wild dogs are dolichocephalic or mesaticephalic, but some domesticated dogs have become brachycephalic (short-headed) due to artificial selection by humans over the course of 12,000 years. —Sighthound

...however, puggles can occasionally have the respiratory ailments commonly found in Pugs (a breed known for being brachycephalic). —Puggle

...long and thin (dolichocephalic), as in the Rough Collie, to nearly nonexistent because it is so flat (extreme brachycephalic), as in the Pug. —Snout

...backwards sneezing or inspiratory paroxysmal respiration) is a phenomenon observed in dogs, particularly in those with brachycephalic skulls. —Reverse sneezing

Boxers are brachycephalic (they have broad, short skulls), have a square muzzle, mandibular prognathism (an underbite), very strong jaws, and a... —Boxer (dog)

...populations have been characterized as either dolichocephalic (long headed), mesaticephalic (moderate headed), or brachycephalic (short headed). —Brachycephaly

As they are a brachycephalic breed (see Brachycephalic syndrome), French Bulldogs are banned by several commercial airlines due to the numbers that have died while in the... —French Bulldog

Other differences in head shape between brachycephalic and dolichocephalic dogs include changes in the craniofacial angle (angle between the basilar axis and hard palate) (... —Dog anatomy

...tint to an olive shade, with black and coarse hair with a circular cross section, an absent or scanty beard, a brachycephalic skull, prominent cheek bones and a broad face. —Mongoloid

Other differences in head shape between brachycephalic and dolichocephalic dogs include changes in the craniofacial angle (angle between the basilar axis and hard palate) (... —Evolution of the wolf

...Aryan and his Social Role", in which he claimed that the white, "Aryan race", "dolichocephalic", was opposed to the "brachycephalic" race, of whom the "Jew" was the archetype. —Racism

__________________________________


How the Asian face got its unique characteristics

https://www.scmp.com/infographics/article/2100532/how-asian-face-got-its-unique-characteristics

{One theory is that Orientals have larger skulls, and that part of their heads are flatter to
accommodate a larger skull. The reason why Orientals have bigger heads is that are actually part Denisovan}.


__________________________________

 

 The first known fossil of a Denisovan skull has been found in a Siberian cave

March 29, 2019


https://www.sciencenews.org/article/first-fossil-denisovan-skull-cave-siberia


__________________________________

Was the Sumerian King Gilgamesh Real? - ROBERT SEPEHR

10/15/2020

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hllWY5BBJOQ

__________________________________

What makes Asian eyes look different?

https://eyemd.wordpress.com/2006/09/01/what-makes-asian-eyes-look-different/

__________________________________

ELI5: How did humans in Asia evolve to have narrower eyes, why did Africans skin stay black while Arabic and European peoples became lighter?

https://www.reddit.com/r/explainlikeimfive/comments/1kqquy/eli5_how_did_humans_in_asia_evolve_to_have/

__________________________________

Images of 20 Chinese women before and after plastic surgery draw eyes online

http://shanghaiist.com/2014/11/10/20-women-before-after-plastic-surgery/

__________________________________

ORIGIN OF SHAPE OF ASIAN EYES IS STILL A MYSTERY TO SCIENTISTS


https://www.chicagotribune.com/news/ct-xpm-1985-10-13-8503100141-story.html

__________________________________

Epicanthic fold

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epicanthic_fold



Medical conditions

The epicanthic fold is sometimes found as a congenital abnormality. Medical conditions that cause the nasal bridge not to mature and project are associated with epicanthic folds. About 60% of individuals with Down syndrome (also known as trisomy 21) have prominent epicanthic folds. In 1862, John Langdon Down classified what is now called Down syndrome. He used the term mongoloid for the condition. This was derived from then-prevailing ethnic theory and from his perception that children with Down syndrome shared physical facial similarities (epicanthic folds) with those of Blumenbach's Mongolian race. While the term "mongoloid" (also "mongol" or "mongoloid idiot") continued to be used until the early 1970s, it is now considered pejorative and inaccurate and is no longer in common use about medical conditions.

In Zellweger syndrome, epicanthic folds are prominent. Other examples are fetal alcohol syndrome, phenylketonuria, and Turner syndrome.

Possible evolutionary function

The epicanthic fold is often associated with greater levels of fat deposition around the eyeball, a feature most accentuated in native North Siberian, Aleut and Inuit populations. The adipose tissue is thought to provide greater insulation for the eye and sinuses from the effects of cold, especially from freezing winds, and to represent an adaptation to cold climates. It has also been postulated that the fold itself might provide a level of protection from snow blindness. Though its appearance in peoples of Southeast Asia can be linked to possible descent from cold-adapted ancestors, its occurrence in various African peoples precludes a cold-adaptive explanation for it appearing in the latter groups. The epicanthic fold found in some African people has been tentatively linked to protection for the eye from the high levels of ultra-violet light found in desert and semi-desert areas.

Age

Many fetuses lose their epicanthic folds after three to six months of gestation. Epicanthic folds may be visible in the development stages of young children of any race, especially before the nose bridge fully develops.

__________________________________


East Asian Physical Traits Linked to 35,000-Year-Old Mutation

https://www.nytimes.com/2013/02/15/science/studying-recent-human-evolution-at-the-genetic-level.html


__________________________________

Evaluating hypercoagulability (abnormal blood coagulation that increases the risk of blood clots) in dogs with brachycephalic airway syndrome: similarity to human obstructive sleep apnea.

http://news.vet.tufts.edu/2017/02/evaluating-hypercoagulability-abnormal-blood-coagulation-that-increases-the-risk-of-blood-clots-in-dogs-with-brachycephalic-airway-syndrome-similarity-to-human-obstructive-sleep-apnea/

__________________________________


Sleep disturbances are common, influenced by race and ethnicity

High prevalence of sleep disturbances, undiagnosed sleep apnea among racial/ethnic minorities may contribute to health disparities

https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2015/06/150619141605.htm

__________________________________


Disparities and Genetic Risk Factors in Obstructive Sleep Apnea

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4602395/

Abstract

Obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) is an increasingly prevalent condition. A growing body of literature supports substantial racial disparities in the prevalence, risk factors, presentation, diagnosis and treatment of this disease. Craniofacial structure among Asians appears to confer an elevated risk of OSA despite lower rates of obesity. Among African Americans, Native Americans, and Hispanics, OSA prevalence is increased, likely due in part to obesity. Burden of symptoms, particularly excessive daytime sleepiness, is higher among African Americans, though Hispanics more often report snoring. Limited data suggest African Americans may be more susceptible to hypertension in the setting of OSA. While differences in genetic risk factors may explain disparities in OSA burden, no definitive genetic differences have yet been identified. In addition to disparities in OSA development, disparities in OSA diagnosis and treatment have also been identified. Increased severity of disease at diagnosis among African Americans suggests a delay in diagnosis. Treatment outcomes are also suboptimal among African Americans. In children, tonsillectomy is less likely to cure OSA and more commonly associated with complications in this group. Among adults, adherence to continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) is substantially lower in African Americans. The reasons for these disparities, particularly in outcomes, are not well understood and should be a research priority.


Background

Obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) is one of the most prevalent sleep disorders with moderate to severe disease affecting up to 17% of middle-aged men and 9% of middle-aged women. OSA is associated with numerous adverse consequences including excessive daytime sleepiness, motor vehicle accidents, hypertension and cardiovascular disease. A large body of literature has identified risk factors for OSA, consequences of the disease and treatment options. However, studies evaluating the extent to which the development, presentation, consequences and management of OSA vary by race have not been as extensively considered. This article will review known differences in OSA by racial background as well as point out areas where further research is needed.
Disparities in OSA Prevalence

Few studies have directly compared the prevalence of OSA across racial groups. In addition, the lack of consistent criteria to define OSA limits comparisons of OSA prevalence across studies. Nevertheless, available data indicate an elevated prevalence of OSA among African Americans, Hispanics, and Native Americans as compared to US whites while the prevalence of OSA in Asians appears comparable to whites.

The strongest evidence for a racial disparity in OSA exists with regards to African Americans. Several studies have found a higher rate of OSA in African Americans particularly African American children.3 Among pediatric patients evaluated in sleep clinic, African American race is associated with a 20% increase in OSA severity4 and greater oxygen desaturation. African American children are 4-6 times more likely to have OSA compared to white children. Even among young adults less than 26 years of age, African Americans are 88% more likely to have OSA as compared to whites. Among middle-aged populations, the evidence for a disparity in OSA prevalence is weaker as differences in OSA prevalence from community based studies are evident in some but not all studies. In contrast, data from older populations suggests a disparity may re-emerge in this age group. While African Americans had similar prevalence of OSA as whites (32% and 30% respectively) in a community-based survey of individuals 65 years of age and older, this group was 2.1 times more likely to have severe OSA.

Data are somewhat more limited regarding OSA prevalence in US Hispanics. The Hispanic Community Health Study (HCHS) used portable sleep monitoring to evaluate the prevalence of OSA in a diverse US Hispanic cohort of over 14,000 adults. The prevalence of mild, moderate and severe OSA in this cohort was 25.8%, 9.8%, and 3.9% but OSA risk was found to vary substantially by Hispanic background being greatest among Cuban men. Consistent with other racial groups, older age, male gender, and obesity were independent risk factors for OSA in this cohort. Although the prevalence is somewhat greater than estimates of community-based white populations, the monitoring system used is very different making direct comparisons difficult.

A cross-racial survey utilizing overnight oximetry, however, did find a higher rate of OSA in Hispanics compared to whites. In contrast, an analysis of data from one site of the Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis (MESA) found that the rate of OSA in Hispanics was similar to whites. However, a more recent analysis evaluating subjects at all MESA sites has reported a higher prevalence in Hispanics.

Information about OSA in Native Americans is sparse. The best evidence comes from SHHS where the odds of moderate to severe OSA was 1.7 times greater than that found in whites.

Unlike African Americans, Hispanics and Native Americans, the prevalence of OSA in Asians and Asian Americans appears similar or lower than that of whites. In a cross-study analysis comparing Japanese participants in the Circulatory Risk in Communities Study (CRICS) to whites in MESA, the prevalence of OSA among Japanese was roughly half that of whites (18.4% vs. 36.5%).15 However, in other studies, Asians have been found to have similar OSA severity to whites. In the Male Study of Osteoporosis (MrOS) cohort of older men, Asian American background was an independent risk factor for OSA. This is consistent with population-based studies from Asia where high rates of OSA have been found in China, Japan, Korea and India, despite low rates of obesity.

In summary, current data from population-based studies suggest the prevalence of OSA is greater among African Americans, Hispanics, and Native Americans although direct comparisons particularly for Hispanics and Native Americans compared to other groups are limited. The greater prevalence in African Americans is particularly notable in younger and older age groups. Asians and Asian Americans appear to have comparable rates of OSA to whites despite markedly lower levels of obesity.

OSA Risk Factors

Understanding the basis of disparities in OSA prevalence requires an evaluation of disparities in the risk factors for OSA as well as an assessment of racial heterogeneity in how risk factors contribute to OSA pathogenesis. Among the most studied OSA risk factors are craniofacial shape and obesity.

Craniofacial shape

Craniofacial shape has been recognized as an important contributor to OSA risk. Both skeletal features such as maxillary-mandibular shape, inferior hyoid position, and small cranial base, as well as soft tissue features such as size of the tongue, soft palate, tonsils, pharyngeal walls, and parapharyngeal fat pads have been identified as OSA risk factors. In general, studies suggest soft tissue factors may be more relevant to predicting risk in African Americans while skeletal features are more predictive in Asians.

Studies comparing African Americans to whites have found tongue area is significantly larger in African Americans with OSA. In contrast, skeletal features such as brachycephaly (a skull shape with a greater lateral compared to antero-posterior dimension) were predictors of OSA severity in whites but not African Americans.26 In contrast, Asians with OSA have more skeletal restriction than their white counterparts as measured by a shorter cranial base as well as difference in length and positioning of the maxilla and mandible. In addition, both an inferiorly positioned hyoid and an extended craniocervical angle have been demonstrated to predict OSA risk in Asians.28,29 However, it is important to note that heterogeneity does exist across Asian backgrounds in the relationship between craniofacial risk factors and OSA.

As compared to African Americans and Asians, there is much sparser data on the relationship between craniofacial shape and OSA risk in Hispanics and Native American groups. Only a few studies have evaluated differences in craniofacial shape between Hispanics and whites that could contribute to differences in OSA risk and these have been inconclusive. One study found bi- maxillary retroposition to be more common among Hispanics with OSA than apneics of other races,33 however another study did not find any differences between Hispanics and whites. Table 1 summarizes the contributing soft tissue and skeletal contributors to OSA, with racial differences noted where literature is available.

__________________________________

Brachycephalic Airway Syndrome

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0195561692503060

__________________________________

Do Indo-Asians have smaller coronary arteries?

https://pmj.bmj.com/content/75/886/463

__________________________________

Asians look thinner but are fatter than Westerners


SINGAPORE: Asians may look thinner than Westerners but they have more fat in their bodies, health experts told a World Health Organisation (WHO) forum yesterday. Obesity is less of a problem in Asia compared with the West, but Asians experience higher cases of obesity-related diseases, they said.


For example, Singaporeans have 5% more body fat than Caucasians, said Mabel Yap, director for research and information management at Singapore''s Health Promotion Board.

"What this means is, we are fatter though we look thinner," she said.

The latest National Health Survey in 1998 found that only 6% of Singaporeans were obese, compared with 5% in 1992.

But the number of Singaporeans with obesity-related diseases was comparable to levels in the West.

While those with diabetes remained at 8%, 27% suffered from high blood pressure while 23.5% had high cholesterol levels, according to the 1998 survey.

http://nutriweb.org.my/index.php?asians-look-thinner-but-are-fatter-than-westerners_del-20101229194745

__________________________________

The Skinny: Asians are the thinnest Americans but that doesn't mean they're the healthiest

    Only 38.6 per cent of Asian Americans are overweight compared to 66.7 per cent of whites and 78.8 per cent for Hispanics
    Younger people are more likely to be thinner than older people and since Asian Americans are a young minority in America, that could account for their slimness
    Asians are just as likely to have high cholesterol or hyper tension as other groups

https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2540332/The-Skinny-Asians-thinnest-Americans-doesnt-mean-theyre-healthiest.html

__________________________________


Do Asian Women Have the Smallest Breasts?

http://www.8asians.com/2011/04/01/do-asian-women-have-the-smallest-breasts/

__________________________________


Mongoloid

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongoloid


__________________________________

Why Asians are thinner: On Cultural Reduction and Health (Contains offensive language)

https://evidencebasedfitness.net/why-asians-are-thinner-on-cultural-reduction-and-health/

 

__________________________________

 

 The Lost Ancient Humans of Antarctica

Feb 25, 2020

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iBF0hP2_nGw


__________________________________


How breeding with an ancient human species gave Tibetans their head for heights

July 4, 2014

https://theconversation.com/how-breeding-with-an-ancient-human-species-gave-tibetans-their-head-for-heights-28818

__________________________________

Mysterious ‘ghost’ populations had multiple trysts with human ancestors

Feb. 20, 2020

https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2020/02/mysterious-ghost-populations-had-multiple-trysts-human-ancestors

__________________________________

 

Who were the ghost people of Africa? DNA reveals ancient Africans bred with new unknown race of humans just 50,000 years ago

 13 February 2020

    The researchers studied the genetic material of 405 people from West Africa
    They discovered mystery genetic material, which they have termed 'ghost DNA'
    It suggests that humans mixed with an unknown group about 50,000 years ago


https://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-7997861/New-study-shows-ghost-DNA-modern-day-population-west-Africa.html


__________________________________

 
The 'Ghosts' of 2 Unknown Extinct Human Species Have Been Found in Modern DNA

17 JULY 2019

https://www.sciencealert.com/two-unknown-species-of-ancient-extinct-hominids-have-been-identified-in-modern-dna

__________________________________

 

Aboriginal Australians, Pacific Islanders carry DNA of unknown human species, research analysis suggests

 
October 2016

https://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-10-26/dna-of-extinct-human-species-pacific-islanders-analysis-suggests/7968950

__________________________________

Ectodysplasin A receptor

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ectodysplasin_A_receptor

Ectodysplasin A receptor (EDAR) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the EDAR gene. EDAR is a cell surface receptor for ectodysplasin A which plays an important role in the development of ectodermal tissues such as the skin. It is structurally related to members of the TNF receptor superfamily.


Function


EDAR and other genes provide instructions for making proteins that work together during embryonic development. These proteins form part of a signaling pathway that is critical for the interaction between two cell layers, the ectoderm and the mesoderm. In the early embryo, these cell layers form the basis for many of the body's organs and tissues. Ectoderm-mesoderm interactions are essential for the proper formation of several structures that arise from the ectoderm, including the skin, hair, nails, teeth, and sweat glands.

Clinical significance

Mutation in this gene have been associated with hypohidrotic ectodermal dysplasia, a disorder characterized by a lower density of sweat glands.

Derived EDAR allele

A derived G-allele point mutation (SNP) with pleiotropic effects in EDAR, 370A or rs3827760, found in most modern East Asians and Native Americans but not common in African or European populations, is thought to be one of the key genes responsible for a number of differences between these populations, including the thicker hair, more numerous sweat glands, smaller breasts, and the Sinodont dentition (so-called shovel incisors) characteristic of East Asians. It has been hypothesized that natural selection favored this allele during the last ice age in a population of people living in isolation in Beringia, as it may play a role in the synthesis of breast milk under Vitamin D-poor conditions. The 370A mutation arose in humans approximately 30,000 years ago, and now is found in 93% of Han Chinese and in the majority of people in nearby Asian populations. This mutation is also implicated in ear morphology differences and reduced chin protrusion. The derived G-allele is a mutation of the ancestral A-allele, the version found in most modern non-East Asian and non-Native American populations.

In a 2015 study, three (of six) ancient DNA samples (7,900-7,500 BP) from Motala, Sweden; two (3300–3000 BC) from the Afanasevo culture and one (400–200 BC) Scythian sample were found to carry the rs3827760 mutation.

In a 2018 study, several ancient DNA samples from the Americas, including USR1 from the Upward Sun River site, Anzick-1, and the 9,600 BP individual from Lapa do Santo, were found to not carry the derived allele. This suggests that the increased frequency of the derived allele occurred independently in both East Asia and the Americas.

__________________________________


Thick Hair, Small Boobs, Shovel Shaped Teeth and More

https://dna-explained.com/2013/02/17/thick-hair-small-boobs-shovel-shaped-teeth-and-more/


Posted on February 17, 2013   

Yep, there’s a gene for these traits, and more.  The same gene, named EDAR (short for Ectodysplasin receptor EDARV370A), it turns out, also confers more sweat glands and distinctive teeth and is found in the majority of East Asian people.

This is one of the results of the National Geographic’s Genographic project.  This mutation found at location rs3827760 on chromosome 2 occurred about 35,000 years ago.  It apparently has conferred some advantage to its carriers, because it is found in the majority of Asian people today.  We don’t exactly know why that happened, but maybe ancient male Asians preferred thick haired, small boobed and sweaty women.  Or maybe those women survived when women with more body fat (yes, boobs are fat, sorry guys) and who could sweat less perished.

This New York Times article discusses the experiments performed to verify that this gene in fact does confer those traits.  The scientific article itself is available in the journal, Cell although it’s behind a paywall.

__________________________________

 

  What You Should Know About Sotos Syndrome

 Physical and physiological symptoms of Sotos syndrome in babies include:

    being a large baby at birth
    growing quickly after birth
    jaundice
    poor feeding

 In children, such symptoms include:

    being taller and bigger than peers of the same age
    large head
    large hands and feet
    long and narrow face
    high forehead
    red or flushed cheeks
    small and pointy chin
    weak muscle tone
    down-slanting eyes
    hypertelorism, which means having a large distance between the eyes
    awkward gait, or way of walking
    scoliosis
    seizures
    hearing loss
    kidney and heart problems
    vision problems


 Mental and developmental symptoms of Sotos syndrome in children include:

    learning disabilities
    delayed development
    behavioral problems
    speech and language problems
    aggressiveness and irritability
    clumsiness
    attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
    motor skill problems

 Risk factors of this condition

Soto's syndrome occurs in 1 out of 14,000 births. This condition is more common among people who are Japanese or of Japanese heritage.


__________________________________

How Japanese and Belgian Sweat Differ

https://nippaku.wordpress.com/2013/07/25/how-japanese-and-belgian-sweat-differ/

__________________________________

Do Asians Sweat More?

http://www.8asians.com/2013/03/20/do-asians-sweat-more/

__________________________________

 

Close inbreeding and low genetic diversity in Inner Asian human populations despite geographical exogamy

2018

https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-018-27047-3


__________________________________

“Chinese Are a Subspecies”

All Look Same?

http://alllooksame.com/chinese-are-a-subspecies/

__________________________________

Characterization of the Asian Phenotype - An Emerging Paradigm with Clinicopathological and Human Research Implications

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5562114/

__________________________________

The mitogenome of a 35,000-year-old Homo sapiens from Europe supports a Palaeolithic back-migration to Africa

https://www.nature.com/articles/srep25501

__________________________________

Psychologists find Asian Americans get a social boost from being overweight

https://qz.com/1048804/psychologists-find-asian-americans-get-a-social-boost-from-being-overweight/

__________________________________

Why do Asians have bigger brains than Europeans or Africans?

Chinese scientists discover natural selection played a role


https://www.scmp.com/news/china/article/2054126/why-do-asians-have-bigger-brains-europeans-or-africans

__________________________________

Genetics

Canine brain tumors as a platform for discovery:

https://www2.vetmed.ucdavis.edu/Neurology/Research/PetersonGenetics.html

__________________________________

Why Summer Heat Can Be Deadly To Brachycephalic Dogs

https://dogtime.com/dog-health/53229-summer-heat-can-deadly-brachycephalic-dogs


__________________________________

Two weeks in the mountains can change your blood for months

https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2016/10/two-weeks-mountains-can-change-your-blood-months


__________________________________

What is Low Blood Oxygen?


https://wagwalking.com/cat/condition/low-blood-oxygen


{Some brachycephalic kinds of cats have more low blood oxygen than other cats}.

__________________________________

 Brachycephalic Syndrome in Cats


 https://wagwalking.com/cat/condition/brachycephalic-syndrome

 What is Brachycephalic Syndrome? Brachycephalic syndrome may involve several upper airway abnormalities. Cats with this health issue may have an elongated soft palate, stenotic nares (narrow, pinched nostrils), and everted laryngeal saccules (small sacs in the larynx that turn out). All of these obstruct normal air flow. Some cats may also have narrowed tracheas or hypoplastic tracheas. Cats that develop brachycephalic syndrome typically have shortened skull bones and short, pushed-in noses. “Brachycephalic” comes from two words, with “brachy” meaning


Symptoms of Brachycephalic Syndrome in Cats


 The cat with brachycephalic syndrome shows several characteristic symptoms that all combine to make breathing difficult: Mouth breathing Noisy breathing Snoring Labored breathing Snorting noises Fainting after exertion Tiring with physical activity Restlessness Coughing and gaging Frequent retching or vomiting Cyanosis Worsening symptoms during hot weather Because of the cat’s facial features and breathing issues, it may also have additional symptoms and issues: Difficulty swallowing Higher risk of heat stroke Dental and periodontal disease Skin infections in the folds of its face Abnormal body posture from attempts to breathe more efficiently Eye problems


Causes of Brachycephalic Syndrome in Cats



Brachycephalic syndrome has only a few causes: Cats that are bred to have shortened faces Narrowed nostrils Long soft palate Turned-out laryngeal saccules Hypoplastic (narrower than normal) trachea Breeders prefer this shortened head shape in several cat breeds, but this leads to significant health issues for those cats.


Diagnosis of Brachycephalic Syndrome in Cats


Once a cat has begun to display symptoms, it can be easy for the vet to develop a diagnosis, but they will still want to run several diagnostic tests to make sure it is correct. The vet may recognize the cat’s appearance and ask about any unusual symptoms the owner may have noticed, such as fainting, noisy breathing or difficulty breathing. Vets know that certain purebred cats are more likely to have been bred to have the shortened face. Knowing this, they will examine the cat, noting its facial characteristics. The vet will also visually inspect the cat’s palate and look for the turned-out laryngeal sacs. This may need to be done while the cat is under anesthesia. Because cats with brachycephalic syndrome don’t always tolerate anesthesia well, the vet will order chest X-rays and blood work to determine the cat’s overall health before beginning anesthesia. While the cat is under anesthesia for the diagnostic work, the vet will also recommend that surgery be done at the same time. By combining the diagnostic work and surgery into one procedure, this reduces the risk to the cat’s life. The vet will specifically look at the cat’s CO2 and pH levels when they order blood work. This helps them to understand the extent of the cat’s breathing problems. The cat may also undergo an endoscopic examination of the trachea and upper airway to see how severe the airways and trachea are affected by this syndrome. Finally, the vet orders bacterial cultures or a biopsy of the airway to identify any potential infections the cat may have.


Treatment of Brachycephalic Syndrome in Cats


Treatment of brachycephalic airway syndrome begins immediately because of its effects on the cat’s health and life. If the cat is overweight, the vet wants to see the cat can lose the unneeded weight. By losing excess pounds, the cat will find it easier to breathe and, eventually, to move around more easily. The cat may begin taking non-steroidal anti-inflammatory (NSAIDS) medications to help give short-term relief from respiratory distress and airway inflammation. Corticosteroids can give the cat the same type of relief from its symptoms. Oxygen therapy allows the cat to get more oxygen into its airways and body. These only help to manage symptoms, not correct their causes. Surgery is the best option to help the cat get needed, permanent relief. The veterinary surgeon widens the cat’s nostrils by removing a small wedge of tissue. The soft palate is shortened, making it much easier for the cat to breathe post-surgery. Finally, the turned-outward laryngeal sacs will be removed, further removing obstructions to the cat’s airway. The earlier the cat is diagnosed with brachycephalic syndrome and surgically treated, the better. This prevents the cat from developing other abnormalities related to its shortened face.

Read more at: https://wagwalking.com/cat/condition/brachycephalic-syndrome


__________________________________

‘We are all mutants now’: the trouble with genetic testing

https://www.theguardian.com/science/2017/jul/18/we-are-all-mutants-now-the-trouble-with-genetic-testing

-

{Could a natural disaster activate a natural mutation gene that is already built into the genetic structure of humans}?


__________________________________


African Americans at Increased Risk for Eye Diseases

Cataracts
Glaucoma
Diabetes
Hypertension

https://yoursightmatters.com/african-americr-eye-diseases/

__________________________________

Focus on Eye Health and Culturally Diverse Populations

http://www.visionproblemsus.org/downloads/2167_MultiCultiCompanion_v08_web.pdf

Myopia – Myopia, or trouble seeing far away, affects upwards of 80 percent of Asian Americans.



__________________________________

 {Here is an example of a dysgenic brachycephalic black man with bug-eyes}.



Man Pops Out Eyes

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YDIGDNQ-fbY

__________________________________

Charles Barkley and the Plague of 'Unintelligent' Blacks

A history of respectability politics, from the postbellum period to today


Charles Barkley recently explained why "we as black people are never going to be successful." His reasoning is painful:

    "We as black people are never going to be successful, not because of you white people, but because of other black people. When you are black, you have to deal with so much crap in your life from other black people," Barkley said.

    Barkley, a native of Leeds, [Alabama,] said African Americans are too concerned with street cred than true success and that's holding the community back.

    "For some reason we are brainwashed to think, if you're not a thug or an idiot, you're not black enough. If you go to school, make good grades, speak intelligent, and don't break the law, you're not a good black person. It's a dirty, dark secret in the black community.

    "There are a lot of black people who are unintelligent, who don't have success. It's best to knock a successful black person down because they're intelligent, they speak well, they do well in school, and they're successful. It's just typical BS that goes on when you're black, man."


https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2014/10/charles-barkley-and-the-plague-of-unintelligent-blacks/382022/


__________________________________

Stock Photo - Handsome bug-eyed African American male freelancer in shirt having forgetful face expression touching head with hand, realizing today is deadline of his project, opening mouth as if saying No!

https://www.123rf.com/photo_75999029_handsome-bug-eyed-african-american-male-freelancer-in-shirt-having-forgetful-face-expression-touchin.html


__________________________________

Flat Feline Faces: Is Brachycephaly Associated with Respiratory Abnormalities in the Domestic Cat (Felis catus)?

https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0161777

__________________________________

The Evolution of Petface


 https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/evolution-petface-180967987/


The same traits that make these dogs adorable threaten their health and well-being


Consider the French bulldog. On the plus side, this charismatic small dog is relatively low-maintenance, doesn’t need a lot of exercise and sticks close to its owner; for many, the makings of a perfect pet. But the health issues associated with brachycephaly, which refers to dog breeds that have wide and flat skulls, means that they often require a higher-than-average amount of veterinary treatment. Moreover, they are forced to rely on humans for things as simple as having their wrinkles cleaned out and giving birth.

The American Kennel Club, which oversees dog breeding standards in the United States, stipulates that Frenchies should have “bat ears” along with “heavy wrinkles forming a soft roll over the extremely short nose.” But those bat ears are prone to infection, as the AKC itself notes. Thanks to their short faces, “Frenchies have less tolerance of heat, exercise and stress, all of which increase their need to breathe,” the guide continues, advising that Frenchie owners keep their pets cool and avoid strenuous exercise. It also notes that the dog’s wrinkles “can be prone to yeast and bacterial infections,” and should be cleaned regularly.

This is just one example of how extreme breed conformation can affect dog welfare and increase the reliance of brachycephalic dogs on human intervention. Yet while it’s long been known that purebred dogs tend to suffer from body shapes and genetic conditions that hurt their health and limit their day-to-day existence, it’s only now that we’re beginning to understand the long history and scientific mechanisms behind this suffering.


How We Got Here

The purebred concept emerged in the Victorian period, when middle-class city dwellers started regularly keeping pets for themselves and their children, rather than just farm animals. Around this time, the eugenics movement preached that it was possible to breed “pure” and ideal animals and humans.

“The systematic breeding of dogs emerged in the middle of the nineteenth century,” writes animal welfare scientist James A. Serpell in Companion Animal Ethics. “Although there were already clearly distinguishable breeds of dogs and other domestic animals before this, the new trend was characterised by conscious efforts to ‘improve’ domestic animals through controlled breeding.” While eugenics is now looked down upon in humans, it’s in many ways alive and well in the pet world. The ideal of “purebred” dogs as being somehow more valuable and desirable is still upheld by kennel clubs, breeders and those who buy them, says Bonnett.

__________________________________

Headform and human evolution

https://europepmc.org/backend/ptpmcrender.fcgi?accid=PMC1272824&blobtype=pdf


__________________________________

Brachycephaly – What You Need to Know?



What is Brachycephaly?

A brachycephalic skull is flat in the rear. The head is also often taller in the back than in the front, the baby’s face may be wider than average, and his or her ears may stick out. The condition frequently occurs in combination with plagiocephaly, and is nearly always the result of positioning of the head of the baby, where pressure is placed on the back of the head for prolonged periods.
What Causes Brachycephaly?

Congenital

Sometimes brachycephaly is a congenital condition, which means it exists at or before birth. According to the National Institutes of Health’s NINDS, brachycephaly occurs when the front bone and side bones join together before the skull is fully developed. There are numerous potential causes for brachycephaly, including metabolic, genetic and developmental disorders. If your child is diagnosed with congenital brachycephaly, make sure that they are evaluated for any associated conditions that your doctor believes are potentially to blame.

Brachycephaly Risk Factors

Risk factors for congenital brachycephaly are predominantly thought to be genetic, although many cases develop in babies with no family history of brachycephaly. As a result, the study of brachycephaly is a popular area of research at present.

The risks for developing the acquired form of brachycephaly include all of the observed risk factors for plagiocephaly, as well as carrying low in the pelvis during pregnancy, very large birth size (macrosomia), breech birth, and being born to a mother with a bicornuate uterus.


https://www.babyflathead.org/brachycephaly-what-you-need-to-know/


__________________________________

Brachycephalic, dolichocephalic and mesocephalic: is it appropriate to describe the face using skull patterns?

https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Brachycephalic%2C-dolichocephalic-and-mesocephalic%3A-Franco-Ara%C3%BAjo/60b4a1bec6c979243168c2806fbb1b0a2c8242c0


The use of a standardized terminology in the medical sciences is essential for both clinical practice and scientific research. In addition to facilitating communication between professionals, it enhances the reliability of comparisons made between studies from different areas, thereby contributing to a higher level of scientific evidence. Examples of attempts made to standardize the terminology in other areas dedicated to the study of craniofacial morphology can be found in the literature. On the other hand, one can find in the orthodontic literature a variety of terms that render the consensus and communication between orthodontists and other researchers even more problematic. As an example, one could cite the use of the terms brachyfacial, mesofacial and dolichofacial, which form part of a cranial index terminology used to describe facial types. Thus, a reflection on the origin and differences of the terms used to describe the human facial phenotype may pave the way toward a consensus regarding the meaning that best represents the craniofacial patterns.


__________________________________

Study: Genetic Mutation Linked to Brachycephaly in Dogs


 https://www.petguide.com/blog/dog/study-genetic-mutation-linked-to-brachycephaly-in-dogs/


Flat faces on Bulldogs and Pugs are cute, but they can lead to breathing problems. New research shows that those faces are linked to a genetic mutation in dogs and their skull development.

Researchers from the Roslin Institute at the University of Edinburgh have studied DNA samples of almost 400 dogs. They believe they’ve found a genetic mutation that shapes the flat faces of breeds like Boxers, Bulldogs and Pugs. The researchers think that this finding also may give insight into birth defects in human children with regard to their head development while in the womb.

Related: UK Vets Warn Against Owning Flat-Faced Breeds

The dogs in the study were pedigreed and mixed breed, and had body scans that gave the scientists access to 3-dimensional images of their heads. They took measurements of the dogs’ skulls and were able to compare those measurements with genetic information. They noted specific DNA variations that they correlated with different head shapes.

They found that a variation in the gene SMOC2 was linked to the length of a dog’s face. When there was a mutated development of that gene, the animals with that mutation were found to have much flatter faces than other canines. This flat face is also known as brachycephalic, and can cause significant health issues in those affected.

Dr. Jeffrey Shoenbeck, lead researcher, says that this finding is important as it gives more information on the genetic and molecular composition that goes into skull formation in dogs and humans.


Humans can be born brachycephalic as well, and the researchers now believe that based on their connections, screening of the SMOC2 gene in humans can bring a diagnosis of brachycephaly in children.

Many dogs are specifically bred for their brachycephalic attributes, though more and more veterinarians caution about doing so because of the extensive breathing problems that result from this breeding.


__________________________________



Here's Why Brachycephalic Dogs Such As Pugs And Bulldogs Have Flat Face

https://www.techtimes.com/articles/208570/20170530/heres-why-brachycephalic-dogs-such-as-pugs-and-bulldogs-have-flat-face.htm

__________________________________

Dog skull study reveals genetic changes linked to face shape


The research reveals new insights into the genes that underpin skull formation in people and animals.

Scientists say their findings also shed light on the causes of birth defects that affect babies' head development in the womb.

Researchers at the University of Edinburgh's Roslin Institute analysed DNA samples from 374 pet dogs of various pedigree and mixed breeds. The dogs were being treated at the Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies.

All of the animals underwent body scans as part of their care, producing detailed 3-dimensional images of the dogs' heads.

These high-resolution images -- called CT scans -- enabled the researchers to take precise measurements of the shape of the dog's skull.

By comparing the dogs' genetic information with measurements of their skulls, the team were able to pinpoint DNA variations that are associated with different head shapes.

One variation -- found to disrupt the activity of a gene called SMOC2 -- was strongly linked to the length of the dog's face. Animals with the mutation had significantly flatter faces, a condition called brachycephaly.

Babies are sometimes born with brachycephaly too, though little is known about its causes. Scientists say screening children for changes in the SMOC2 gene could help to diagnose the condition.

The study is published in the journal Current Biology.

Lead researcher Dr Jeffrey Schoenebeck, of the University's Roslin Institute, said: "Our results shed light on the molecular nature of this type of skull form that is so common and popular among dogs."


https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2017/05/170526125730.htm

__________________________________

Why are the backs of Asian babies' heads flat?

https://www.quora.com/Why-are-the-backs-of-Asian-babies-heads-flat


__________________________________

Scientists have discovered a mutation behind pugs’ weird little flat faces

Not cute

https://www.theverge.com/2017/5/28/15703688/pugs-bulldogs-boston-terriers-squished-flat-faces-brachycephalic-genetics

__________________________________

The Relationship between Brachycephalic Head Features in Modern Persian Cats and Dysmorphologies of the Skull and Internal Hydrocephalus

 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5598898/

__________________________________

 

Severe brachycephalic in Persian and related breeds

https://icatcare.org/advice/cat-health/brachycephalic

__________________________________

Putting our heads together: Canines may hold clues to human skull development

 https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2013/02/130208105303.htm

__________________________________


Brachycephalic Dogs: Why Do Pugs Breathe So Loudly

https://www.puglifemagazine.com/single-post/Brachycephalic-Dogs

__________________________________


Vision in Dogs

http://www.rctn.org/bruno/animal-eyes/dog-vision-miller-murphy.pdf

__________________________________

Study Finds Hispanic- and African-American Preschoolers Need Better Vision Screening

 https://www.aao.org/eye-health/news/hispanic-african-american-preschoolers-screening


__________________________________

Ancient Wolf Genome Reveals an Early Divergence of Domestic Dog Ancestors and Admixture into High-Latitude Breeds

http://genetics.med.harvard.edu/reichlab/Reich_Lab/Welcome_files/Pontus_TaimyrWolf_CurrentBiology_2015.pdf

__________________________________


Origin of the domestic dog

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Origin_of_the_domestic_dog

{What would happen if you kept breeding these Pug dogs with these facial deformities, do you think that Pugs could turn into an even more dysgenic type of breed}.

__________________________________



{Look at how the face of a Chow Dog is similar to that of an Oriental person.

We can see that both the Chow species of dog and Orientals have lived in the same

area where these face deformities have occurred. Some Orientals however are also very good at breathing at high altitudes, such as the people of Tibet. We can see that the reason why Orientals can breathe at higher altitudes is they have more Denisovan animal DNA.


 More research needs to be done to see how a deformity in an airway of the nose can cause different genetic mutations in brachycephalic species of dogs, and including brachycephalic species of humans}.


__________________________________

Things to think about before buying a flat-faced (brachycephalic) dog

https://www.bluecross.org.uk/pet-advice/things-think-about-buying-flat-faced-dog

{Wow look at this, we even see similar eye problems in flat faced dogs and brachycephalic dogs
as we see in black people}.

__________________________________

Gene which helps people cope with low oxygen levels at high altitudes could become target for new drugs to treat heart disease

https://www.aao.org/eye-health/news/ethnicity-eye-disease-risk-reminder-asian-african-


__________________________________

 Vision risks vary by ethnic and genetic backgrounds

 https://versanthealth.com/visionreferencelibrary/2017/04/24/risk-of-vision-problems-increased-in-certain-ethnic-groups/



Vision problems can affect all of us, with age and gender being just two factors. Did you know that different ethnicities can also play an important role? Research suggests that some ethnic backgrounds are subject to an increased risk of vision problems compared to others.

African Americans

Cataracts
African Americans are more likely than Caucasians to develop cataracts. As a result, they are five times more likely to develop blindness.

Glaucoma
African Americans are also five times more likely than Caucasians to develop glaucoma, and four times more likely to suffer blindness from it as a result. Glaucoma is often characterized by the loss of periphery vision that can progress to complete vision loss without treatment.

Asian Americans

Asian Americans are more likely than the national average to develop angle-closure glaucoma…

Glaucoma
Asian Americans are more likely than the national average to develop angle-closure glaucoma, caused by rapid or sudden increases in pressure inside the eye. Glaucoma is often characterized by the loss of periphery vision that can progress to complete vision loss without treatment. People of Japanese descent are also more prone to a particular type of the disease, called low-tension glaucoma.

Caucasians

While cataracts are more common among African Americans and Hispanics, Caucasians are also at risk. Extended exposure to UV rays from the sun is a risk factor.

Hispanics

Cataracts
Among Hispanics, cataracts are three times more common vs. Caucasians and African Americans. The disease is the leading cause of visual impairment among Hispanic adults. Extended exposure to UV rays is a risk factor.



__________________________________


{Orientals and the eyes of black people are more deformed, this is why they have more eye problems}.

__________________________________

Glaucoma in the African American and Hispanic Communities

https://www.brightfocus.org/glaucoma/article/glaucoma-african-american-and-hispanic-communities

__________________________________


African Americans and Glaucoma


https://www.glaucoma.org/glaucoma/african-americans-and-glaucoma.php

__________________________________

 

 More oxygen in eyes of African-Americans may help explain glaucoma risk

http://www.isionaware.org/blog/visionaware-blog/african-american-patients-highest-risk-for-diabetic-retinopathy-and-lowest-rates-for-follow-up-eye-care-%E2%80%93-what-kind-of-education-is-needed/12

They found that oxygen levels are significantly higher in the eyes of African-Americans with glaucoma than in Caucasians with the disease. The researchers report their findings in the July issue of the Archives of Ophthalmology. They suspect that more oxygen may damage the drainage system in the eye, resulting in elevated pressure. Higher pressure can damage the optic nerve, causing blindness.

The study provides the first physiologic clue about the link between race and risk for glaucoma. Glaucoma is the leading cause of blindness among African-Americans. Compared to Caucasians, glaucoma is about six times more common in African-Americans, and blindness caused by glaucoma is roughly 16 times more likely in African-Americans.


__________________________________

Why 7 Deadly Diseases Strike Blacks Most


    Diabetes is 60% more common in black Americans than in white Americans. Blacks are up to 2.5 times more likely to suffer a limb amputation and up to 5.6 times more likely to suffer kidney disease than other people with diabetes.
    African-Americans are three times more likely to die of asthma than white Americans.
    Deaths from lung scarring -- sarcoidosis -- are 16 times more common among blacks than among whites. The disease recently killed former NFL star Reggie White at age 43.
    Despite lower tobacco exposure, black men are 50% more likely than white men to get lung cancer.
    Strokes kill 4 times more 35- to 54-year-old black Americans than white Americans. Blacks have nearly twice the first-time stroke risk of whites.
    Blacks develop high blood pressure earlier in life -- and with much higher blood pressure levels -- than whites. Nearly 42% of black men and more than 45% of black women aged 20 and older have high blood pressure.
    Cancer treatment is equally successful for all races. Yet black men have a 40% higher cancer death rate than white men. African-American women have a 20% higher cancer death rate than white women.

Why?

Genes definitely play a role. So does the environment in which people live, socioeconomic status -- and, yes, racism, says Clyde W. Yancy, MD, associate dean of clinical affairs and medical director for heart failure/transplantation at the University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center.

https://www.webmd.com/hypertension-high-blood-pressure/features/why-7-deadly-diseases-strike-blacks-most#1

__________________________________

Asthma Studies Raise Thorny Questions about Race and Genetics

 Research shows that African-Americans don’t respond as well as their white counterparts to some of the most common asthma controller medications, raising questions about how those medications are tested in clinical trials.

 http://www.calhealthreport.org/2017/05/01/asthma-studies-raise-thorny-questions-about-race-and-genetics/


__________________________________

 Genetic Ancestry Is Associated With Measures of Subclinical Atherosclerosis in African Americans

Conclusions—

Overall, our findings indicate that genetic ancestry was associated with subclinical atherosclerosis, suggesting unmeasured risk factors and interactions with genetic factors might contribute to the distribution of subclinical atherosclerosis among African Americans.

https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/10.1161/ATVBAHA.114.304855

__________________________________

HPV Vaccines May Be Less Effective in African American Women

African American women are more likely to have HPV strains that are not included in current vaccines.

https://www.everydayhealth.com/womens-health/hpv-vaccines-may-be-less-effective-in-african-american-women-researchers-find.aspx

__________________________________

CDC: Genital Herpes Among Black Women High

 https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=124628530


__________________________________



Interracial Marriage More Common Than Ever, but Black Women Still Lag

Americans more likely to marry outside of their race, especially black men

https://abcnews.go.com/WN/Media/black-women-marry-interracial-marriage-common/story?id=10830719



__________________________________

Breast Cancer in Young African American Women

 https://www.cdc.gov/healthcommunication/toolstemplates/entertainmented/tips/BreastCancerAfricanAmerican.html

Resources for Entertainment Education Content Developers.

What’s the Problem?

Every year, 24,000 women under the age of 45 are diagnosed with breast cancer; and 3,000 will die as a result. Young African American women under the age of 35 have breast cancer rates that are two times higher than Caucasian women of the same age. Furthermore, young African American women are three times as likely to die from breast cancer as Caucasian women of the same age. Once diagnosed, young African American women face unique challenges that are either not present or are less severe for older women. Having a breast health course of action and discussing the significant implications of a breast cancer diagnosis is essential for young African American women in taking care of their health.

__________________________________


Eye Diseases Among African Americans

The most common eye diseases and conditions that affect African Americans include cataract, diabetic eye disease, glaucoma, and low vision. Many of these diseases and conditions do not have noticeable symptoms in their early stages, but they can be detected through a comprehensive dilated eye exam. Treatment is most effective when an eye disease is diagnosed early.

https://nei.nih.gov/nehep/programs/write-the-vision/eye-diseases-among-african-americans


__________________________________

African Americans at Increased Risk for Eye Diseases

https://yoursightmatters.com/african-americr-eye-diseases/



__________________________________

Immune system of African-Americans responds more strongly to bacterial infection

This immune system response is partly genetic!

 While the immune system of African Americans responds more strongly, Professor Barreiro is careful to qualify it as better: "The immune system of African Americans responds differently, but we cannot conclude that it is better, since a stronger immune response also has negative effects, including greater susceptibility to autoimmune inflammatory diseases such as Crohn's disease. Too much inflammation can damage organs and leave sequelae. In short, a strong immune response can be beneficial in some areas but a disadvantage in others.

 https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2016-10/uom-iso101716.php

__________________________________


Racial Classification of Indian People (by Different Anthropologist)

http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/essay/anthropology/racial-classification-of-indian-people-by-different-anthropologist/41839


__________________________________



FACTSHEET: Africa’s leading causes of death

https://africacheck.org/factsheets/factsheet-africas-leading-causes-death/


Africa’s top 5 causes of death

 
#1  Lower respiratory tract infections

The leading cause of death in Africa, lower respiratory tract infections target your airways and lungs. Diverse in origin, they stem from many viruses and bacteria and occasionally fungi or parasites.

The most common illnesses are bronchitis or pneumonia. Pneumonia is single-handedly responsible for 16% of global deaths of children younger than five, with a significantly greater share in Africa.

The notable exclusion from this category is tuberculosis as the disease can infect virtually anywhere in the body even if initially limited to the lungs.


__________________________________

What You Should Know About Sickle Cell Trait

https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/sicklecell/documents/SCD%20factsheet_Sickle%20Cell%20Trait.pdf


In their extreme form and in rare cases, the following conditions could be harmful for people with
SCT:Increased pressure in the atmosphere (e.g., while scuba diving).
•Low oxygen levels in the air
 (e.g., when mountain climbing,
•exercising extremely hard in military boot camp, or training for
an athletic competition).Dehydration (e.g., too little water in the body).
•High altitudes
(e.g., flying, mountain climbing, or visiting a city at
•a high altitude).


__________________________________

 

 Comparison of vaginal shapes in Afro-American, caucasian and hispanic women as seen with vinyl polysiloxane casting.

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10895030


__________________________________

Racial Differences in Pelvic Anatomy by Magnetic Resonance Imaging

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2593128/


__________________________________

The incidence of urinary incontinence across Asian, black, and white women in the United States.

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20042169


__________________________________

Ethnic differences in pelvic floor muscle strength and endurance in South African women.

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24464469


__________________________________

Asian Hair Types

https://theidleman.com/blogs/grooming/race-differences-hair-types


You might be wondering why Asian hair is so straight. Well, Asian hair grows from a round follicle which is responsible for that typically straight hair. Plus, it makes it extremely versatile when it comes to different hair styles. There are some differences in hair according to different types of Asians. Chinese hair and Oriental Asian hair is usually straight and is also the typical kind of Asian thin hair. East Asian hair, in particular, is stronger, thicker, more resistant to damages and hair loss when compared to other hair types.

Not only is Asian hair less prone to hair loss, but Asian hair growth is also remarkable. The average hair growth in a year is 15.3cm (1.3cm per month) which makes Asian hair the fastest growing type as well as the thickest hair in the world. If you're wondering why does Asian hair grow so fast, it's because it also has the longest growth cycle lasting as far as 9 years.


Race Differences in Hair Types


Asian Hair Vs Caucasian Hair

If you're wondering why Asian hair is so thick, it's because East Asian hair cuticles are much thicker and hair diameter is twice the size of Caucasian hair. Even though Asian hair types normally have fewer hair than Caucasians, the thickness of their hair shafts creates the impression of a fuller head of hair. It's also pretty rare to see a bald Asian as they experience less shedding of hair. It's also argued that for each balding Asian man there are three balding Caucasians.


Alopecia in Black Hair

Traction alopecia is the most common kind of hair loss amongst black people. That is caused by putting hair under stress through tight hairstyles such as braids and cornrows. However, black hair loss is also caused by genetic factors.

In this case, DHT is the hormone responsible for the shrinking of hair follicles and causes the hair to grow thinner and eventually leading to the closing up of hair follicles altogether. Once that happens, baldness becomes irreversible. Even though the highest number of cases of androgenetic alopecia can be found in Caucasian males, Afro hair follows suit. Another cause of hair loss is trichophyton tonsurans, a fungal hair loss type which causes localised hair loss and is most common in Afro hair.


Black Hair Breakage

As we've mentioned before, black hair is naturally more delicate and therefore it breaks more easily. However, black hair breakage can be also induced via the frequent use of relaxers and hair colourants which eventually lead to hair thinning. More importantly, this can also damage the root which leads to more permanent hair loss.
Regrow Black Hair

Unfortunately, there isn't one magic solution to hair loss. However, there are some treatments and hair growth products for black hair that can help. Natural products such as vitamins and supplements can, of course, contribute to the general health of your hair and are a fundamental part of a balanced diet. The only proven treatments for hair growth are a combination of Propecia and minoxidil which can work on all types of hair. However, it's always best to consult a professional to discuss your specific case.

If you're wondering how to make black male hair grow faster, there are no treatments that can guarantee that result or make your hair longer. It's crucial to do everything in your power to prevent your hair from breaking such as avoiding chemical relaxers and hairstyles that can cause thinning.


Caucasian Hair Types

Caucasian hair has the highest density amongst the different hair types. There are many different textures of Caucasian hair as it can be fine, straight, coarse or wavy and curly. Plus, there's an interesting range of shades from red to browns and the lightest end of the spectrum with blonde. Blondes have the greatest density with an average of 146.000 hairs on their heads followed by black hair with 110.000, brunettes with 100.000 and lastly red heads with 86.000.


__________________________________


7 Reasons You're Drunker Than Your Friends
Experts weigh in on genetic, phsycial factors that affect alcohol tolerance.

https://abcnews.go.com/Health/Wellness/reasons-drunker-friends/story?id=14221338

__________________________________

For Asians, A Low BMI Doesn't Mean Healthy; Hypertension, Cholesterol Rates Equal To Blacks, Hispanics, And Whites

https://www.medicaldaily.com/asians-low-bmi-doesnt-mean-healthy-hypertension-cholesterol-rates-equal-blacks-hispanics-and-whites

__________________________________

Why Is the Obesity Rate So Low in Japan and High in the U.S.? Some Possible Economic Explanations

https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/bitstream/14321/1/tr06-02s.pdf


__________________________________


Modern human origins: multiregional evolution of autosomes and East Asia origin of Y and mtDNA

https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/101410v5

__________________________________


Parasite Prevalence and the Worldwide Distribution of Cognitive Ability

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/44888621_Parasite_Prevalence_and_the_Worldwide_Distribution_of_Cognitive_Ability

__________________________________

China is Cheating the World Student Rankings System

Enough is enough: Beijing must supply national data to assessors and not simply the results of a small minority of elite students


http://world.time.com/2013/12/04/china-is-cheating-the-world-student-rankings-system/

 

__________________________________

 Asiatic Types

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:LA2-NSRW-1-0149.jpg

__________________________________


Asian Bodies That Proudly Defy An Archetype

“You barely see Asian-American bodies in media. But when you do, you only see perfect, skinny ones.”


https://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/asian-american-body-image_us_5aea06bfe4b06748dc8effe7

__________________________________

Why are so many Asians so thin?

https://www.quora.com/Why-are-so-many-Asians-so-thin

__________________________________

10 Reasons Why Asians Are so Slim

https://brightside.me/inspiration-health/10-reasons-why-asians-are-so-slim-366160/


__________________________________

The Evolution of Looks and Expectations of Asian Eyelid and Eye Appearance

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4536060/

 

__________________________________

 

 Why is it so hard to see an Asian American football player in NFL and college football?

https://www.quora.com/Why-is-it-so-hard-to-see-an-Asian-American-football-player-in-NFL-and-college-football

__________________________________

BMI discriminates against black people – and everyone else too


https://metro.co.uk/2018/03/30/bmi-discriminates-against-black-people-and-everyone-else-too-7421228/


__________________________________

8 Health Conditions That Disproportionately Affect Black Women

https://www.self.com/story/black-women-health-conditions

____________________________________________________________________

 

 

 

 

____________________________________________________________________

                                     

 

____________________________________________________________________                                     

 

                                               

____________________________________________________________________                                        

____________________________________________________________________                                    

 

 

____________________________________________________________________                                    

 

____________________________________________________________________

                                           

____________________________________________________________________                             

 

 

 

 

 

 ____________________________________________________________________

 

 

 

____________________________________________________________________

 

 

 

 

 ____________________________________________________________________

 

                                                                                  H. floresiensis reconstruction

____________________________________________________________________

 

 

                                                                                 H. floresiensis reconstruction

____________________________________________________________________

 

____________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________

 

 --------------------------------------------------



{This article is a continuation of our following published articles in the following links}.



__________________________________



 3/5/2019 - Race Dysgenics: Evolution, Dysgenic De-evolution, Eugenics & Genetic Modification - The History of the Lineage of Man  - https://racedysgenics.blogspot.com


__________________________________


04/19/2018 The Dysgenics Investigation - Race, Science & the Human Genome Project - The Eugenics Investigation (Akoniti) - DysgenicsInvestigation.blogspot.com


__________________________________

 

3/27/2020 - Race Dysgenics Brazil | Eugenics in Brazil

 
https://eugenicsbrazil.blogspot.com

 

__________________________________

Race Virus 101 - The Eugenics Investigation ( The Dysgenics Investigation)

https://racevirus101.blogspot.com/


__________________________________



8/15/2017 - Genetically Modified Vaccines Investigated - The Eugenics Investigation (MonsantoInvestigation.com) - GMOvaccinesinvestigated.blogspot.com


__________________________________

July 7th, 2017 - Genetically Modified Humans & Viruses - The Eugenics Investigation - GMOhumansandviruses.blogspot.com


__________________________________

 

4/15/2020 - Coronavirus Investigation News - Race Virus 201 - Pollution Science 101 (COVID-19 & SARS-CoV-2)

https://coronavirusinvestigation.blogspot.com

 

__________________________________

 4/4/2019 - The Rockefeller Dynasty Investigation 2020 - The Eugenics Investigation - https://rockefellerdynastyinvestigation.blogspot.com/

 

 _______________________________________________________________________

 

                                               TheInvestigations@email.com